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AISI 2205 duplex stainless steel is used in a variety of industries, including the chemical and petrochemical industries. This is due to its high tensile strength combined with good ductility and corrosion resistance. However, in laser beam welding, these properties are negatively afected by the high cooling rates typical of the welding process. The resulting higher ferrrite content in the weld metal than in the base material leads to a reduction in the ductility and corrosion resistance of the welded joint. To overcome this problem, in this study, thick plates were coated by direct energy deposition (DED) prior to laser beam welding, whereas a duplex powder mixture containing a higher nickel concentration was used as a coating material. To improve the weld quality for the proposed two-step process, a method of additional material deposition instead of conventional tack weld was investigated. The resulting welded joints showed a well-balanced austenite to ferrite ratio and their properties and microstructure were verifed by metallographic analysis, electron backscatter difraction and Charpy impact testing. Using the standard ASTM G48 test method, it was found that the corrosion resistance of the welds was improved by a factor of four in average compared to the conventionally welded joints. The resulting properties, such as good ductility and corrosion resistance, of the welds with pre-coated edges showed good agreement with those of the base metal and confrmed the proposed two-step process as a promising alternative to the conventional approaches for welding thick duplex stainless steel plates.
Through experimental observation and auxiliary numerical simulation, this investigation studies the different types of grain refinement of 5754 aluminum alloy laser beam welding by applying a transverse oscillating magnetic field. Scanning electron microscope results have proved that the application of a magnetic field can reduce the average crystal branch width and increase its number. The interaction between the induced eddy current generated by the Seebeck effect and the applied external magnetic field produces a Lorentz force, which is important for the increase in the number of crystal branches. Based on the theory of dendrite fragmentation and the magnetic field-induced branches increment, the grain size reduction caused by the magnetic field is studied. Furthermore, the effects of the magnetic field are analyzed by combining a phase field method model and simulations of nucleation and grain growth. The grain distribution and average grain
size after welding verify the reliability of the model. In addition, the introduction of a magnetic field can increase the number of periodic three-dimensional solidification patterns. In the intersection of two periods of solidification patterns, the metal can be re-melted and then re-solidified, which prevents the grains, that have been solidified and formed previously, from further growth and generates some small cellular grains in the new fusion line. The magnetic field increases the building frequency of these solidification structures and thus promotes this kind of grain refinement.
The amount of absorbed energy in the keyhole as well as its spatial and temporal distribution is essential to model the laser beam welding process. The recoil pressure, which develops because of the evaporation process induced by the absorbed laser energy at the keyhole wall, is a key determining factor for the macroscopic flow of the molten metal in the weld pool during high-power laser beam welding. Consequently, a realistic implementation of the effect of laser radiation on the weld metal is crucial to obtain reliable and accurate simulation results. In this paper, we discuss manyfold different improvements on the laser-material interaction, namely, the ray tracing method, in the numerical simulation of the laser beam welding process. The first improvement relates to locating the exact reflection points in the ray tracing method using a so-called cosine condition in the determination algorithm for the intersection of reflected rays and the keyhole surface. A second correction refers to the numerical treatment of the Gaussian distribution of the laser beam, whose beam width is defined by a decay of the laser intensity by a factor of 1/e2, thus ignoring around 14% of the total laser beam energy. In the third step, the changes in the laser radiation distribution in the vertical direction were adapted by using different approximations for the converging and the diverging regions of the laser beam, thus mimicking the beam caustic. Finally, a virtual mesh refinement was adopted in the ray tracing routine. The obtained numerical results were validated with experimental measurements.
Abstract
In the post-processing of large maritime components, a considerable amount of waste in the form of milling and grinding chips is produced. At the same time, additive manufacturing technologies have shown great potential in producing high-volume parts for maritime applications, allowing novel design approaches and short lead times. In this context, this study presents a sustainable approach to recycle and use aluminium bronze waste material, generated during post-processing of large cast ship propellers, as feedstock for laser-powder directed energy deposition. The recycling technology used to produce powder batches is inductive re-melting in combination with ultrasonic atomization. The derived metal powders are characterized using digital image analysis, powder flowability tests, scanning electron microscopy as well as energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Compared to conventional metal powders produced by gas atomization, the recycled material shows excellent sphericity and a powder size distribution with a higher content of finer and coarser particles. Metallographic sections of deposited additively produced specimens show an increased hardness and reduced ductility, but also competitive densities and higher yield and ultimate tensile strength compared to cast material. The process chain shows high potential for the maritime sector to enable circular and sustainable manufacturing.
In recent years, in addition to the commonly known wire-based processes of Directed Energy Deposition using lasers, a process variant using the electron beam has also developed to industrial market maturity. The process variant offers particular potential for processing highly conductive, reflective or oxidation-prone materials. However, for industrial usage, there is a lack of comprehensive data on performance, limitations and possible applications. The present study bridges the gap using the example of the high-strength aluminum bronze CuAl8Ni6. Multi-stage test welds are used to determine the limitations of the process and to draw conclusions about the suitability of the parameters for additive manufacturing. For this purpose, optimal ranges for energy input, possible welding speeds and the scalability of the process were investigated. Finally, additive test specimens in the form of cylinders and walls are produced, and the hardness profile, microstructure and mechanical properties are investigated. It is found that the material CuAl8Ni6 can be well processed using wire electron beam additive manufacturing. The microstructure is similar to a cast structure, the hardness profile over the height of the specimens is constant, and the tensile strength
and elongation at fracture values achieved the specification of the raw material.
It is already known that the laser beam welding (LBW) or hybrid laser-arc welding (HLAW) processes are sensitive to manufacturing tolerances such as gaps and misalignment of the edges, especially at welding of thick-walled steels due to its narrow beam diameter. Therefore, the joining parts preferably have to be milled. The study deals with the influence of the edge quality, the gap and the misalignment of edges on the weld seam quality of hybrid laser-arc welded 20-mm-thick structural steel plates which were prepared by laser and plasma cutting. Single-pass welds were conducted in butt joint configuration. An AC magnet was used as a contactless backing. It was positioned under the workpiece during the welding process to prevent sagging. The profile of the edges and the gap between the workpieces were measured before welding by a profile scanner or a digital camera, respectively. With a laser beam power of just 13.7 kW, the single-pass welds could
be performed. A gap bridgeability up to 1 mm at laser-cut and 2 mm at plasma-cut samples could be reached respectively.
Furthermore, a misalignment of the edges up to 2 mm could be welded in a single pass. The new findings may eliminate the need for cost and time-consuming preparation of the edges.
An accurate and efficient description of the spatial distribution of laser energy is a crucial factor for the modeling of laser material processing, e.g., laser welding, laser cutting, or laser-based additive manufacturing. In this study, a 3D heat transfer and fluid flow model coupled with the volume-of-fluid algorithm for free surface tracking is developed for the simulation of molten pool dynamics in high-power laser beam welding. The underlying laser-material interactions, i.e., the multiple reflections and Fresnel absorption, are considered by a raytracing method. Two strategies of free surface reconstruction used in the ray-tracing method are investigated: a typical piecewise linear interface calculation (PLIC)-based method and a novel localized level-set method. The PLIC-based method is discrete, resulting in noncontinuous free surface reconstruction. In the localized level-set method, a continuous free surface is reconstructed, and, thus, the exact reflection points can be determined. The calculated spatial laser energy distribution and the corresponding molten pool dynamics from the two methods are analyzed and compared. The obtained numerical results are evaluated with experimental measurements to assure the validity of the proposed model. It is found that distinct patterns of the beam multiple reflections are obtained with the different free surface reconstructions, which shows significant influence not only on the molten pool behaviors but also on the localized keyhole dynamics.
Motivated by the loss of tensile strength in 9%Ni steel arc-welded joints performed using commercially available Ni-based austenitic filler metals, the viability of retaining tensile strength using an experimentally produced matching ferritic filler metal was confirmed. Compared to the austenitic Ni-based filler metal (685 MPa), higher tensile strength in gas metal arc (GMA) welded joints was achieved using a ferritic filler metal (749 MPa) due to its microstructure being similar to the base metal (645 MPa). The microstructure of hard martensite resulted in an impact energy of 71 J (-196 °C), which was two times higher than the specified minimum value of _>34 J. The
tensile and impact strength of the welded joint is affected not only by its microstructure, but also by the degree of its mechanical mismatch depending on the type of filler metal. Welds with a harder microstructure and less mechanical mismatch are important for achieving an adequate combination of tensile strength and notched impact strength. This is achievable with the cost-effective ferritic filler metal. A more desirable combination of mechanical properties is guaranteed by applying low preheating temperature (200 °C), which is a more practicable and economical solution compared to the high post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) temperature (580 °C) suggested by other research.
The study deals with the influence of the heat input and the resulting cooling times on the microstructure and Charpy impact toughness of single-pass laser hybrid welded 20-mm thick high-strength steel S690QL. The main focus is on the change of the mechanical properties over the entire seam thickness. The cooling times were measured in-situ using a pyrometer and an optical fibre in three different depths of the seam where Charpy impact test specimens were also later taken. Thereby, three different heat inputs from 1.3 kJ/mm to 2 kJ/mm were investigated. Despite the observed decreased values of both t8/5-cooling time and the Charpy impact toughness in the root part of the seam, the required impact toughness of 38 J/cm2 could be reached in dependance on applied heat input, especially at the heat input of 1.6 kJ/mm.
Solidification cracking is still a serious problem in laser beam welding, especially in the welding of thick-walled plates. The influence of weld pool geometry on solidification cracking in partial penetration welding of thick plates is investigated within scope of this study. Therefore, a specific experimental setup of steel and quartz glass in butt configuration and on the side with high-speed camera were used to record the weld pool shape. In addition, the influence of laser inclination angle on the weld pool geometry and on solidification crack formation was investigated. The results show a bulge in the weld pool root, which is separated from an upper region by a necking region. This leads to a case where there are three different longitudinal region lengths with different solidification zones. This temporal sequence of solidification strongly promotes the formation of solidification cracks in the weld root.
Study on the transition behavior of the bulging effect during deep penetration laser beam welding
(2022)
The present work is devoted to the study of the transition behavior of the recently confirmed widening of the weld pool, known as the bulging effect, during high-power deep penetration laser beam welding of thick unalloyed steel sheets. A three-dimensional transient multi-physics numerical model is developed, allowing for the prediction of the bulge formation and the study of its temporal behavior. The model is generalized to account automatically for the transition from partial to complete penetration. Several experimental measurements and observations, such as drilling period, weld pool length, temperature, efficiency, and metallographic cross-sections are used to verify the model and assure the plausibility of the numerical results. The analysis of the calculated temperature and velocity distributions, as well as the evolution of the keyhole geometry, shows that the formation of a bulging region strongly depends on the penetration depth of the weld. Based on the numerical results, the bulge is found to occur transiently, having its transition from a slight bulge to a fully developed bulging between penetration depths of 6 mm and 9 mm, respectively.
Duplex stainless steels combine the positive properties of its two phases, austenite and ferrite. Due to its good corrosion resistance, high tensile strength, and good ductility, it has multiple applications. But laser beam welding of duplex steels changes the balanced phase distribution in favor of ferrite. This results in a higher vulnerability to corrosion and a lower ductility. Herein, different powder combinations consisting of duplex and nickel for coating layers by laser metal deposition (LMD) are investigated. Afterward, laser tracks are welded, and the temperature cycles are measured. The ferrite content of the tracks is analyzed by feritscope, metallographic analysis, and electron backscatter diffraction. The goal is the development of a powder mixture allowing for a duplex microstructure in a two-step process, where first the edges of the weld partners are coated with the powder mixture by LMD and second those edges are laser beam welded. The powder mixture identified by the pretests is tested in the two-step process and analyzed by metallographic analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and
Vickers hardness tests. The resulting weld seams show a balanced duplex microstructure with a homogenous nickel distribution and a hardness of the weld seam similar to the base material.
The Directed Energy Deposition process is used in a wide range of applications including the repair, coating or modification of existing structures and the additive manufacturing of individual parts. As the process is frequently applied in the aerospace industry, the requirements for quality assurance are extremely high. Therefore, more and more sensor systems are being implemented for process monitoring. To evaluate the generated data, suitable methods must be developed. A solution, in this context, was the application of artificial neural networks (ANNs). This article demonstrates how measurement data can be used as input data for ANNs. The measurement data were generated using a pyrometer, an emission spectrometer, a camera (Charge-Coupled Device) and a laser scanner. First, a concept for the extraction of relevant features from dynamic measurement data series was presented. The developed method was then applied to generate a data set for the
quality prediction of various geometries, including weld beads, coatings and cubes. The results were compared to ANNs trained with process parameters such as laser power, scan speed and powder mass flow. It was shown that the use of measurement data provides additional value. Neural networks trained with measurement data achieve significantly higher prediction accuracy, especially for more complex geometries.
size limitations and high production costs of L-PBF make it competitive for smaller, highly complex components, while the less complex elements of an assembly are manufactured conventionally. This leads to scenarios that use L-PBF only where it’s beneficial, and it require an integration and joining to form the final product. For example, L-PBF combustion swirlers are welded onto cast parts to produce combustion systems for stationary gas turbines. Today, the welding process requires complex welding fixtures and tack welds to ensure the correct alignment and positioning of the parts for repeatable weld results. In this paper, L-PBF and milled weld preparations are presented as a way to simplify the Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding of rotationally symmetrical geometries using integrated features for alignment and fixation. Pipe specimens with the proposed designs are manufactured in Inconel 625 using L-PBF and milling. The pipe assembly is tested and TIG welding is performed for validation. 3D scans of the pipes before and after welding are evaluated, and the weld quality is examined via metallography and computed tomography (CT) scans. All welds produced in this study passed the highest evaluation group B according to DIN 5817. Thanks to good component alignment, safe handling, and a stable welding process, the developed designs eliminate the need for part-specific fixtures, simplify the process chain, and increase the process reliability. The results are applicable to a wide range of components with similar requirements.
Herein, an improved ray-tracing routine using a virtual mesh refinement approach is adopted in a 3D transientmultiphysics computational fluid Dynamics model for deep penetration wire feed laser beam welding. In a previous study, it was shown that the improved localization of the reflection points of the subrays within the keyhole leads to a more realistic development of the keyhole Depth being validated with experimental results. Another effect investigated in Detail herein is a drastic change in the flow behavior in the weld pool, which promotes the occurrence of a necking area in the solidification line and subsequent bulging under specific circumstances. This has a detrimental effect on the filler material element transport in the weld pool, leading to an inhomogeneous dilution of the added material. The numerical observations are backed up by experimentally obtained data, allowing to provide a clear physics-based explanation of the reduced mixing behavior of the filler wire in the melt pool.
This article presents a cost-effective and reliable method for welding 30 mm thick sheets of shipbuilding steel EH36. The method proposes to perform butt welding in a two-run technique using hybrid laser arc welding (HLAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW). The HLAW is performed as a partial penetration weld with a penetration depth of approximately 25 mm. The SAWis carried out as a second run on the opposite side. With a SAWpenetration depth of 8 mm, the weld cross-section is closed with the reliable intersection of both passes. The advantages of the proposed welding method are: no need for forming of the HLAW root; the SAW pass can effectively eliminate pores in the HLAWroot; the high stability of the welding process regarding the preparation quality of the weld edges. Plasma cut edges can be welded without lack of fusion defects. The weld quality achieved is confirmed by destructive tests.
The Directed Energy Deposition process is used in a wide range of applications including the repair, coating or modification of existing structures and the additive manufacturing of individual parts. As the process is frequently applied in the aerospace industry, the requirements for quality assurance are extremely high. Therefore, more and more sensor systems are being implemented for process monitoring. To evaluate the generated data, suitable methods must be developed. A solution, in this context, was the application of artificial neural networks (ANNs). This article demonstrates how measurement data can be used as input data for ANNs. The measurement data were generated using a pyrometer, an emission spectrometer, a camera (Charge-Coupled Device) and a laser scanner. First, a concept for the extraction of relevant features from dynamic measurement data series was presented. The developed method was then applied to generate a data set for the quality prediction of various geometries, including weld beads, coatings and cubes. The results were compared to ANNs trained with process parameters such as laser power, scan speed and powder mass flow. It was shown that the use of measurement data provides additional value. Neural networks trained with measurement data achieve significantly higher prediction accuracy, especially for more complex geometries.
Laser metal deposition (LMD) as an additive manufacturing technique became increasingly important in recent years and thus the demand for component safety. This is the reason, for the need for reliable in-situ defect detection techniques. For laser beam weld seams an optical measurement technique based on an optical flow algorithm was successfully used to define the critical straining conditions that lead to hot cracking. This algorithm was adapted for bead-on-plate weld seams on LMD deposited layers of IN718 alloy while performing external strain on the specimen in an externally loaded hot cacking test facility. The resulting transversal hot cracks along the weld seam were localized via X-Ray inspection and the type of cracking confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The strain distribution was measured in the vicinity of the solidification front and correlated to the detected hot cracks. Based on the results this technique could be adopted for LMD experiments.
This study presents mechanisms of the evolution of a narrowed region in the weld pool center during deep penetration laser beam welding. In numerous numerical studies presented in this study, it was also found that the local reduction of the weld pool size can cause detrimental effects on the melt flow behavior and the resulting properties of the welds. A particularly large influence of this effect was identified in three aspects. First, the local variation of the solidification sequence of the weld pool causes an increase in the hot-cracking susceptibility due to a locally delayed solidification. Second, it was proven that a change in the local length and width of the weld pool is associated with an adverse impact on the potential flow routes of the molten material that induces stronger local variations of its solidification. Thus, the element mixing, e.g., during the welding with filler materials, is blocked. This leads to a non-homogeneous chemical composition of the final weld and can cause undesired effects on the final material properties. Finally, another observed effect is related to the reduced ability of process pores to reach the top surface. As this type of porosity is usually produced around the keyhole tip, the change of the fluid flow regime above this area plays a significant role in determining the final path of the pores until the premature solidification in the middle of the weld pool captures them. This study summarizes mainly numerical results that were supported by selected experimental validation results.
The high amount of resource consumption of fusion welding processes offers the potential to reduce their environmental impact. While the driving forces are known froma qualitative perspective, the quantitative assessment of the crucial parameters is not a trivial task. Therefore, herein, a welding-specific methodology to utilize life cycle assessment as a tool for evaluating the environmental impact of fusion welding processes is presented. In this context, two welding processes, resistance spot welding and laser beam welding, are analyzed for two different use cases.
These comprise the welding of shear test specimens and a cap profile made of electrogalvanized sheets of DC 05þ ZE (1.0312) as representative of an automotive application. For both welding processes, the main influences on the resulting environmental impact categories are evaluated and compared. The requirements for ecological efficient welding processes are discussed and implemented.