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The usefulness and purpose of evaluating nondestructive testing (NDT) systems and their capabilities has changed in the last decade. The conventional method of simply applying a familiar statistical algorithm to say whether the system is usable for the tasks is history.
Nowadays, multiple parameter methods which describe the probabilities of detection (POD) of different systems or real defects need new characteristics and a broader variety of statistical models to describe the true system behaviour. The appraisal of the NDT system involves diverse departments within a company (engineering, NDT-operators, and statisticians), but is, at the same time, more needed and requested than in the past. In this article, an approach is discussed in which professionals from different fields worked well together, accomplishing cost-intensive metallographic studies in correlation with well-understood physical behaviour of NDT-methods as well as deep-discussed mathematical methods to create a holistic evaluation of the technical reliability for a specific radiographic testing (RT) equipment. The first part of the publication will show the comparison between metallographic grinding and the RT indications. An essential innovation over past evaluation methods was the use of a multi-scale smoothing algorithm, which describes physical parameters, which were not used in evaluation like the POD in this way in the past.
In the second part the statistical requirements for the POD take the focus. It can often be hard to make significant statements; especially in the case where only a small amount of data is available. The combination of data and the use of knowledge from simulations are essential. One possible solution will be shown for the RT evaluation. The methodology is used for evaluating the digital RT system for the inspection of electron-beam welds, which was method considered to seal the Finnish copper canisters for the final deposit of spent nuclear fuel.
Ultrasonic phased array is, currently, the technology which is being applied as the solution to a lot of inspection problems. The perceived benefits are seen to be worth the outlay on equipment and specialised personnel. Yet, there is a source of knowledge, freely available, which can also deliver immediate benefits, through more reliable inspection results, and consequently increased client confidence, but which is largely ignored by the greater part of the NDT community. This talk will review the latest Human Factors knowledge and provide practical illustrations of how companies can use it to improve their competitive edge.
The General Guidance in the Swedish regulations state that the safety assessment for a final repository for spent nuclear fuel should be 1 million years after closure. SKB developed the KBS-3 method, according to which the spent nuclear fuel is protected by three barriers. It is encapsulated in canisters with a diameter of 1 metre and a length of 5 metres. The canister consists of a cast iron insert surrounded by a 5 centimetre thick shell of copper. The canisters are disposed in the bedrock at a depth of about 500 meters surrounded by bentonite clay. In order to assess the safety over this extremely long period, an extensive quality control programme is applied to the canisters before deposit. In this programme, the use of
non-destructive testing (NDT) is vital. The safety assessment of the canister in turn places high demands on the coverage, detectability, and reliability of the applied NDT inspections of the canister parts, i.e. cast iron insert, copper base, tube and lid, and the copper friction stir welds (FSW). This paper presents the extensive full-scale inspection development programme that runs at the Canister Laboratory in Oskarshamn (Sweden). In order to fulfil the high demands, phased array ultrasonic inspection techniques are developed using practical trials aided by ultrasonic modelling. The techniques apply, for example, different frequencies, inspection angles, focus depths, and both longitudinal and shear waves. Increased inspection reliability of the FSW is achieved by applying digital X-ray technique using a 9 MeV linear accelerator and a line detector. To complete the coverage, complementary surface inspections methods, i.e. eddy current array, magnetic flux sensor techniques and magnetic particle inspection, are applied. The canister safety assessment was the driving force to include reliability studies during the NDT development. Initially, the technical reliability was considered, resulting in development of advanced POD models (probability of detection). In combination with human factors studies, these models were implemented as tools in the development of the NDT techniques. Human factors studies were also applied to improve the inspection procedures to be more user-friendly enabling reliable inspections.
The properties of the encapsulant are critical to the long-term performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules under the influence of sunlight including UV, elevated temperature, humidity and diffusion of oxygen. Encapsulation process represents a bout 40% of the whole PV module cost. The introduction of new non-EVA encapsulant material type "Low-Cost, High-Performance" should provide a solution to outdoor yellowing degradation problems. The emerging encapsulant materials exhibit a good compatibility with emerging PV solar cells for long term durability. This new generation of encapsulant materials has the advantage to improve e the PV module performances and long term durability for specific climate like desert regions. This scientific contribution presents an overview of the different encapsulant materials currently on the market, the general requirements of the emerging encapsulant materials and characterizations techniques for degradation, diagnostic and reliability lifetime estimation in the framework of Algerian renewable energy strategy.
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) is a well-known solid lubricant for tribosystems running in vacuum or dry gases. Problems arise due to its sensitivity to humidity, which is a drawback for its application under ambient conditions. However, by using a physical vapor deposition (PVD) process, deposition parameters can be optimized not only to gain a coatings structure with favorable frictional properties but also to minimize the sensitivity to attack by water molecules. Therefore, an improved tribological behavior even under moist conditions can be achieved. MoS₂coatings are also candidates for being applied at cryogenic temperatures. They already have proven their suitability, e.g., for sliding support elements between superconducting magnets of the nuclear fusion-experiment Wendelstein 7-X. However, these coatings were exclusively produced for this particular application and the utilization for more common tribosystems may be precluded due to cost considerations. In view of a wider range of applications, pure and Cr containing PVD-MoS₂ coatings with an optimized structure were tested under varying environments including hydrogen gas and cryogenic temperatures. Results of the most promising variant are presented in this paper.
Distickstoffmonoxid (N2O, Lachgas) und Helium (He) sind gängige Prüfgase für Dichtheitsprüfungen. Die einfachste Leckgeometrie stellt ein ideal zylindrisches Rohr dar. Es wurden Glaskapillaren verschiedener Abmessungen mit Lachgas und Helium durchströmt. Der Überdruck am Kapillareingang lag zwischen 100 mbar und 400 mbar. Es handelte sich um vier annähernd zylindrische Glaskapillaren mit den mittleren Durchmessern: Kapillare 1: ca. 102 μm; Kapillare 2: ca. 71 μm; Kapillare 3B: ca. 49 μm; Kapillare 4: ca. 53 μm. Zudem wurde eine nichtzylindrische Kapillare geprüft (Kapillare 3A). Die Kapillaren 1, 2 und 3B wurden mit beiden Prüfgasen getestet. Kapillare 3A wurde nur mit Lachgas durchströmt, Kapillare 4 nur mit Helium. Für die Messung der Leckageraten kam das Überdruckverfahren mit Ansammlung (Verfahren B3 nach DIN EN 1779: 1999-10) zum Einsatz. Als Detektor für Lachgas diente der Lachgasdetektor Maihak Unor 6 N, für Helium der Leckdetektor T-Guard der Firma Inficon.
Es wurden verschiedene Theorieansätze verglichen. Beim Theorieansatz Ib erfolgte die Umrechnung der Lachgas-Messwerte auf die Helium-Messwerte und umgekehrt anhand der Druck-, Temperatur- und Gasartabhängigkeit der Leckagerate für laminar-viskose Gasströmung (DIN EN 1779: 1999-10; DGZfP-Richtlinie DP2: 2009-12). Beim Theorieansatz II wurde die Berechnung der Leckagerate für die laminar-viskose Rohrströmung unter der Annahme einer ideal zylindrischen Kapillare durchgeführt. Zusätzlich wurde mit „ANSYS Fluent“ eine CFD-Simulation vorgenommen. Bei Kapillare 3A wurde eine Serienschaltung der Strömungsleitwerte von Rohr und Düse angesetzt. Bei Anwendung des Ansatzes Ib werden bei Umrechnung der Helium-Messwerte auf Lachgas die Lachgas-Messwerte überschätzt. Umgekehrt werden bei der Umrechnung der Lachgas-Messwerte auf Helium die Helium-Messwerte unterschätzt. Bei Analyse der Einlauflängen der Rohrdurchströmung ist festzustellen, dass diese für Lachgas stets größer als für Helium sind. Bei Lachgas liegt daher für einige Messwerte noch keine ausgebildete laminare Rohrströmung vor. Einlaufeffekte können somit nicht vernachlässigt werden. Als Fazit ergibt sich, dass bei Verwendung von Helium als Prüfgas und Umrechnung der Helium-Messwerte auf Lachgas die Lachgas-Leckageraten sicherheitstechnisch konservativ abgeschätzt werden.
The crystal structures and syntheses of four different copper(II) phenylphosphonates, the monophenylphosphonates α-, β-, and γ-Cu(O3PC6H5)·H2O (α-CuPhPmH (1) β-CuPhPmH (2) and γ-CuPhPmH (3)), and the diphosphonate Cu(HO3PC6H5)2·H2O (CuPhP2mH (4)), are presented. The compounds were synthesized from solution at room temperature, at elevated temperature, under hydrothermal conditions, and mechanochemical conditions. The structures of α-CuPhPmH (1) and CuPhP2mH (4) were solved from powder X-ray diffraction data. The structure of β-CuPhPmH (2) was solved by single crystal X-ray analysis. The structures were validated by extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and DTA analyses. Disorder of the crystal structure was elucidated by electron diffraction. The relationship between the compounds and their reaction pathways were investigated by in situ synchrotron measurements.
Within the scope of a DIN INS project, a flash thermography round robin test that evaluates reliability, comparability and efficiency of different testing situations is organized. The results give information about the detectability of defects e.g. by their size and depth, the evaluation method and by the materials used. Besides, the influence of equipment and parameters used by the participants on the results were analysed. All of the quantitative results as well as the feedback given by the participants will be presented in a DIN committee in order to contribute to a flash thermography standard.
A novel photoswitchable rotaxane was synthesised and its switching behaviour in solution was analysed with NMR and UV-Vis. A monolayer of rotaxanes was deposited on glass surfaces and the on-surface photoswitching was investigated. Angle-resolved NEXAFS spectra revealed a preferential orientation that reversibly changes upon switching.
In this work, fullerene has been functionalized with cyanuric Chloride at room temperature by a nitrene mediated [2 + 1] cycloaddition reaction. The adduct after functionalization is inherently in the form of azafulleroid and shows broad UV absorption in the wavelength range of 200–800 nm, as well as photothermal conversion and fluorescence with a high quantum yield.