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Im Bereich der optisch angeregten Thermografie haben sich Blitzlampen (impulsförmig-flächige Erwärmung) und Halogenlampen (moduliert-flächige Erwärmung) für die spezifischen Regime Impuls- und Lockin-Thermografie etabliert.
Mittels eines rasternden fokussierten Lasers wird die Flying-spot Laserthermografie z.B. zur Risserkennung (Dauerstrichbetrieb) und die photothermische Materialcharakterisierung (hochfrequent moduliert)implementiert. Durch die Verfügbarkeit neuer Technologien (schnelle und hochauflösende IR-Kameras, brillante innovativer Lichtquellen und performante Datenakquisitions- und Verarbeitungstechnik) wird ein Paradigmenwechsel von den getrennt voneinander stehenden photothermischen und thermografischen Techniken hin zu einer einheitlichen quantitativen Mess-und Prüftechnik ermöglicht, die schneller und präziser ist. Ähnlich wie ein LED-Array, jedoch mit einer um zwei Größenordnungen höheren Bestrahlungsstärke, steht jetzt eine neuartige brillante Laserquelle, das VCSEL-Array (vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser) zur Verfügung, welches die starke Beschränkung der zeitlichen Dynamik der etablierten Lichtquellen aufhebt und gleichzeitig spektral sauber von der Detektionswellenlänge getrennt ist. Es vereint somit das schnelle zeitliche Verhalten eines Diodenlasers mit der hohen optischen Bestrahlungsstärke und dem großen Beleuchtungsbereich von Blitzlampen. Darüber hinaus kann die Erwärmung auch strukturiert vorgenommen werden, da einzelne Bereiche des VCSEL-Arrays unabhängig voneinander angesteuert werden können. Dieser neue Freiheitsgrad ermöglicht die Entwicklung ganz neuer thermografischer ZfP-Verfahren.
Laser thermography has its roots in the late-1960s when Kubiak first used a focused light source to raster-scan a specimen containing surface breaking cracks and employed an infrared detector to monitor the blocking effect of the cracks on the heat flow. Nowadays, this technique has evolved into the flying-spot laser thermography. In the mid-1970s, when Rosencwaig and Gersho worked out the theory for the photoacoustic effect, they laid the foundation for the development of the photothermal testing methodology. The decisive difference to the flying-spot technique is that in the photothermal methodology, a high-frequency modulated laser beam is used, which explicitly uses the concept of the thermal wave.
Starting in the 1980s, infrared cameras came into play and enabled full-field thermal imaging, but this time, slow thermal light sources were used. Today, flash lamps (pulsed planar heating) and halogen lamps (modulated planar heating) have been established as the standard light sources for the specific regimes of pulsed and lock-in thermography.
Only recently, the availability of novel technologies – fast and high-resolution infrared cameras, innovative brilliant laser sources and high-performance data acquisition and processing technology – has enabled a paradigm shift from the separated photothermal and thermographic methodologies to a versatile tool for NDE that combines both approaches. In addition, the heating can also be spatially structured using laser arrays. This new degree of freedom allows the development of completely new thermography NDE methods.
In the talk, we present current activities with kilowatt-class high-power laser sources for advanced flying-spot, pulsed, lock-in and laser-projected thermography.
A novel ionization scheme for ambient mass spectrometry is presented and discussed. Desorption and ionization are achieved by a quasi-continuous laser induced plasma (LIP) ignited in front of the atmospheric pressure interface of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This setup comprises the advantages of i) an ambient probe, ii) electro neutrality, iii) low power consumption, iv) a sufficient duty cycle, v) a ubiquitous plasma medium (air) and vi) high sensitivity caused by the high electron number densities.
The plasma properties and operating conditions are investigated to understand the processes that lead to the formation of molecular ions. Comprehensive studies include optical emission spectroscopy, shadowgraphic shockwave visualization and time-of-flight mass spectrometry investigations. The observed MS signal (including reagent-ion signal, as well as analyte spectra) closely resembles the ionization behavior of other electrically-driven plasma-based ionization sources, such as DBD, LTP or DART. Conversely that means that although LIPs are commonly known to have temperatures way above 10.000 K and thus efficiently atomize and ionize molecules, MS spectra were obtained that showed the formation of intact molecular ions.
For an insight into the LIP properties the optical emission of the LIP is examined and exhibits a pronounced degree of dissociation into atomic and ionic species, which reflects the higher temperature and electron density inside a LIP. Accordingly, rather elemental (ICP-type) than molecular spectra should be expected. However due to the absence of such ions, we conclude that the analyte does not enter the hot center of the plasma itself. Moreover, the initial, highly-excited plasma species react cascade-like to lower energetic species via reactive collision with the surrounding atmosphere, which can then subsequently ionize molecules of interest. The concept potentially involves charge transfer, proton transfer, electron impact and photoionization.
These assumptions are confirmed via the shadowgraphs of the expanding shockwave around the LIP. An effective spatial separation between the two regions is maintained by concentrically expanding pressure waves resulting in a strongly unidirectional diffusion. Additionally, the strictly outbound matter transport suggests a rarefaction inside the plasma region for each plasma event.
A novel ionization scheme for ambient mass spectrometry is presented and discussed. Desorption and ionization are achieved by a quasi-continuous laser induced plasma (LIP) ignited in front of the atmospheric pressure interface of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This setup comprises the advantages of i) an ambient probe, ii) electro neutrality, iii) low power consumption, iv) a sufficient duty cycle, v) a ubiquitous plasma medium (air) and vi) high sensitivity caused by the high electron number densities.
The plasma properties and operating conditions are investigated to understand the processes that lead to the formation of molecular ions. Comprehensive studies include optical emission spectroscopy, shadowgraphic shockwave visualization and time-of-flight mass spectrometry investigations. The observed MS signal (including reagent-ion signal, as well as analyte spectra) closely resembles the ionization behavior of other electrically-driven plasma-based ionization sources, such as DBD, LTP or DART. Conversely that means that although LIPs are commonly known to have temperatures way above 10.000 K and thus efficiently atomize and ionize molecules, MS spectra were obtained that showed the formation of intact molecular ions. For an insight into the LIP properties the optical emission of the LIP is examined and exhibits a pronounced degree of dissociation into atomic and ionic species, which reflects the higher temperature and electron density inside a LIP. Accordingly, rather elemental (ICP-type) than molecular spectra should be expected. However due to the absence of such ions, we conclude that the analyte does not enter the hot center of the plasma itself. Moreover, the initial, highlyexcited plasma species react cascade-like to lower energetic species via reactive collision with the surrounding atmosphere, which can then subsequently ionize molecules of interest. The concept potentially involves charge transfer, proton transfer, electron impact and photoionization.
These assumptions are confirmed via the shadowgraphs of the expanding shockwave around the LIP. An effective spatial separation between the two regions is maintained by concentrically expanding pressure waves resulting in a strongly unidirectional diffusion. Additionally, the strictly outbound matter transport suggests a rarefaction inside the plasma region for each plasma event.
Among the photothermal methods, full-field thermal imaging is used to characterize materials, to determine thicknesses of layers, or to find inhomogeneities such as voids or cracks. The use of classical light sources such as flash lamps (impulse heating) or halogen lamps (modulated heating) led to a variety of nondestructive testing methods, in particular lock-in and flash-thermography.
In vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs), laser light is emitted perpendicular to the surface with a symmetrical beam profile. Due to the vertical structure, they can be arranged in large arrays of many thousands of individual lasers, which allows power scaling into the kilowatt range. Recently, a high-power yet very compact version of such a VCSEL-array became available that offers both the fast timing behavior of a laser as well as the large illumination area of a lamp.
Moreover, it allows a spatial and temporal control of the heating because individual parts of the array can be controlled arbitrarily in frequency, amplitude, and phase. In conjunction with a fast infrared camera, such structured heating opens up a field of novel thermal imaging and testing methods. As a first demonstration of this ansatz, we chose a testing problem very challenging to conventional thermal infrared testing: The detection of very thin subsurface defects perpendicularly oriented to the surface of metallic samples. First, we generate destructively interfering thermal wave fields which are then affected by the presence of defects within their reach. It turned out that this technique allows highly sensitive detection of subsurface defects down to depths in excess of the usual thermographic rule of thumb, with no need for a reference or surface preparation.
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) sind Diodenlaser, welche Laserstrahlung mit gutem Strahlprofil senkrecht zur Chipoberfläche emittieren. Aufgrund dieser vertikalen Bauweise können sie in großen Arrays zu vielen tausenden einzelnen Lasern zusammengefasst werden. Solch ein VCSEL-Array vereint das schnelle zeitliche Verhalten eines Diodenlasers mit der hohen optischen Bestrahlungsstärke und dem großen Beleuchtungsbereich von Blitzlampen oder LEDs und kann damit potentiell alle herkömmlichen Lichtquellen der Thermografie ersetzen.
Darüber hinaus kann der Prüfkörper mithilfe dieser Lichtquelle strukturiert erwärmt werden, da einzelne Bereiche des VCSEL-Arrays unabhängig voneinander angesteuert werden können. Dieser neue Freiheitsgrad ermöglicht die Entwicklung neuer thermografischer ZfP-Verfahren. Wir demonstrieren diesen Ansatz anhand eines für die konventionelle Thermografie nur sehr bedingt lösbaren Prüfproblems, der Detektion vertikal zur Oberfläche ausgerichteter, sehr dünner, verdeckter Defekte in metallischen Werkstoffen. Wir erzeugen hierzu destruktiv interferierende thermische Wellenfelder. Defekte im Einflußbereich dieser thermischen Wellenfelder stören die destruktive Interferenz und erlauben eine hochsensible Detektion bis in Tiefen jenseits der üblichen thermografischen Faustformel, ohne Referenz und ohne Oberflächenbehandlung.