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Paper des Monats
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High Temperature Fatigue Crack Growth in Nickel-Based Alloys Refurbished by Additive Manufacturing
(2024)
Hybrid additive manufacturing plays a crucial role in the restoration of gas turbine blades, where, e.g., the damaged blade tip is reconstructed by the additive manufacturing process on the existing blade made of a parent nickel-based alloy. However, inherent process-related defects in additively manufactured material, along with the interface created between the additively manufactured and the cast base material, impact the fatigue crack growth behavior in bi-material components. This study investigates the fatigue crack growth behavior in bi-material specimens of nickel-based alloys, specifically, additively manufactured STAL15 and cast alloy 247DS. The tests were conducted at 950 °C with stress ratios of 0.1 and −1. Metallographic and fractographic investigations were carried out to understand crack growth mechanisms. The results revealed significant retardation in crack growth at the interface. This study highlights the potential contributions of residual stresses and microstructural differences to the observed crack growth retardation phenomenon, along with the conclusion from an earlier study on the effect of yield strength mismatch on crack growth behavior at a perpendicular interface in bi-material specimens.
In this paper we present a new hydrogen-based test rig for an ongoing feasibility study of using hydrogen as an energy source for the thermal testing of transport packages containing radioactive materials. The test rig will be capable of combusting hydrogen for a wide range of different burner geometries, mass flows and if necessary hydrogen blends. As this type of fire test according to the IAEA boundary conditions does not yet exist, a large number of preliminary investigations, safety assessments and calculations must be carried out in order to develop a viable concept for hydrogen fires. In the first step of the feasibility study, the temperature, structure, and radiation of various hydrogen flames are surveyed. In future works, the results will make it possible to design burner frames that are suitable for fire reference tests in order to make comparisons with pool and propane fires used in assessment procedures today. In parallel comparative numerical simulations are conducted to model the thermal behaviour of hydrogen flames using the software package Ansys®. On the one hand, the numerical simulations support the experiments by providing an overview of numerous parameters and the measuring range; on the other hand, they will help with the design of the burner frame in future work. This paper gives an overview in the design and capabilities of the test rig. Furthermore, the results of the parameter studies show that burner geometry and mass flow provide a significant design margin for the thermal shape of the hydrogen flames. In addition, the results of the initial numerical calculations will be used to determine the necessary sensors, the positions, and their operating range. Only the optimal interaction allows a controlled system that permits user-defined hydrogen fires.
Experimental and Numerical Analyses for the Evaluation of Heat Fluxes of a Fire Reference Test
(2024)
Packages for the transport of high-level radioactive material are designed to endure severe accidents. To obtain approval, these transport packages must adhere to the specification-based criteria of the IAEA SSR-6. To ensure compliance with these requirements, specific mechanical and thermal tests need to be appointed with respect to the package type. Typically, IAEA SSR-6 prescribes mechanical tests followed by a thermal fire test as part of a cumulative test sequence. To approve the fire test, BAM uses a reference package representing the original package in its outer geometry for characterizing the actual fire and its impact on the package. This serves a dual purpose: it allows the precise adjustment of experimental parameters for the package design to be approved, and it provides input parameters for thermomechanical simulations, cf. With the help of this methodology for characterizing boundary conditions of the package, temperature evolutions within the reference package can be studied in a Finite-Element Analyses (FEA). This helps to compare the experiments with the numerical simulations on the case of the reference package, but also serves at the same time for preliminary simulations with the package design to be approved.
The thermal test consists of a 30-minute fully engulfing 800°C pool fire or an equally severe fire, e.g. a propane gas fire. The fire reference test is performed prior to the regulatory fire test with the package design to be approved. The fire reference package in the described case is a closed sheet 316L steel cylinder with a wall thickness of 10 mm, a length of 182 mm, and a diameter of 102 mm. The package was instrumented with thermocouples and filled with heat resistant insulating material.
The decommissioning or refurbishment of nuclear facilities necessitates either the storage or disposal of large radioactive components such as steam generators, pressurizers, reactor pressure vessels and heads, and coolant pumps, to list the major contributors. These components or objects are large in size and mass, measuring up to approximately 6 meters in diameter, up to 20 meters in length, and weighing over 400 000 kg. In many situations, the components are transported off-site to a storage, disposal or recycling/treatment facility. Previously, many large objects had to be transported under special arrangement.
The latest 2018 edition of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, No. SSR-6, incorporates regulations for the shipment of contaminated, but not activated large objects as a new category of surface contaminated object, SCO-III, based on the IAEA “performance package” concept.
This paper provides background and practical guidance on these regulations. Additionally, first experiences with SCO-III in the approval process are presented.
For SCO-III components a mechanical assessment regarding the tests specified in the transport regulations SSR-6 for demonstrating ability to withstand normal conditions of transport is required - a free drop of the package onto an unyielding target and a penetration test have to be investigated. Large components are unique objects; therefore, it is not possible to choose experimental testing as assessment method. The application of a complex numerical analysis for mechanical proof is necessary.
The assessment of the loads takes place based on local stress distributions.
The large nuclear components have typically been transported in an unpackaged manner, so that the external shell of the component provides the containment wall.
The paper will represent the methods, which are used for the evaluation of the mechanical integrity of the object for transport approval.
Fire-induced spalling of normal strength concrete with different types of blended Portland cement
(2024)
The cement industry is looking to reduce its overall CO2 footprint. Greener manufacturing can be achieved by the introduction of more clinker-reduced cements. Concrete exposed to fire tends to show explosive spalling caused by thermomechanical and thermohydraulic processes. It is therefore essential to determine how concretes with clinker-reduced cements behave under fire exposure, especially for concretes containing calcined clays, as these are expected to be the supplementary cementitious material of the future.
In this paper, normal strength concretes with four different cements (CEM I, CEM II/A-LL, CEM III/A and CEM II/B-Q) were examined for their fire-induced spalling behaviour. In addition, a mix with PP fibres was investigated for each concrete. The experiments were conducted on ring-restrained cylindrical specimens exposed to the hydrocarbon fire curve. The results showed that the cement type influences spalling behaviour. Samples with CEM I spalled the least, followed by CEM II/A-LL and CEM III/A.
Finally, samples with CEM II/B-Q showed the most severe damage. It was found that the spalling behaviour of different concretes correlates with the moisture content before exposure to fire, meaning that higher moisture content leads to higher spalling susceptibility. The use of 2 kg/m³ PP fibres completely inhibited spalling regardless of the cement type used and therefore remains a successful avoidance strategy.
Considering the existing challenges involved in the transfer of flame retardant (FR) formulations from epoxy (EP) resins to glass fiber reinforced composites (GFRCs), obtaining data on the post-fire flexural properties of such composites is even more challenging as this involves balancing test parameters with potential composite delamination. In this study, solvent-free FR additives: ammonium polyphosphate (APP), and inorganic silicate (InSi) were added at 10, 30% and 50% w/w loading to a Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (DGEBA)-dicyandiamide (DICY)-Urone resin matrix. These resin formulations were transferred to bidirectional (BD) glass fiber composites via prepregs. A novel, but facile approach was developed to prepare the composite samples for furnace tests at 400 oC. The composites were also subjected to fire exposure at different heat fluxes and times via a bench-scale test and subsequently tested via three-point bending. At approximately 3.5% P content, the FRs significantly improve the fire performance of both the resins and composites. However, they also degrade the systems’ pre- and postfire flexural modulus and strength. Therefore, improving the flame-retardant mode of action of the FRs in the composites, contrastingly reduces their structural integrity post-fire leading to a trade-off effect.
The magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) technology is recognized as a promising approach for improving the quality of deep penetration laser beam welding. This study employs experimental and numerical methods to investigate the effects of an auxiliary oscillating magnetic field on reducing porosity in the laser beam welding of 5754
aluminum alloy. The experimental results clearly demonstrate a significant reduction of 97% in the porosity ratio of the welded joints applied with an oscillating magnetic field compared to those without magnetic field, thereby validating the efficiency of applying MHD technology in mitigating porosity during the laser beam welding process. In addition, a transient 3D multi-physical model has been developed, integrating the MHD model and metal vapor plume, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the porosity suppression mechanism. The weld pool shape is significantly widened and enlarged because of the Lorentz force, which facilitates the escape of gas bubbles. Meanwhile, the introduction of an oscillating magnetic field generates a time-averaged downward Lorentz force. This averaged downward Lorentz force, in turn, enhances and stables the downward fluid flow, which hinders the bubble backward movement. Meanwhile, this averaged downward Lorentz force induces an upward electromagnetic expulsive force on the bubble, which effectively increases the upward escape velocity of bubbles in the weld pool. The simulation results agree well with the experimental results.
Der Absorptionsgrad metallischer Werkstoffe spielt bei Fügeprozessen mit einer Strahlungsquelle wie dem Hochleistungslaserstrahltiefschweißen eine bedeutende Rolle. Dieser beeinflusst die Menge der absorbierten Laserenergie, welche zum Aufschmelzen sowie zur lokalen Verdampfung des zu verbindenden Materials führt. Die Laserstrahlabsorption wird von vielen physikalischen Faktoren, z.B. Laserprofil, Laserwellenlänge, Materialeigenschaft sowie Temperatur, entschieden. Dennoch wird die Temperaturabhängigkeit in vielen Simulationsarbeiten häufig ignoriert und stattdessen ein empirisch angepasster Parameter zur Kalibrierung der Ergebnisse implementiert. Diese Vorgehensweise wirkt sich negativ auf die Zuverlässigkeit des numerischen Modells sowie auf die Vorhersagbarkeit der Simulationsergebnisse aus. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Temperaturabhängigkeit des Laserabsorptionsgrades in ein selbstkonsistentes zweiphasiges Modell unter Berücksichtigung der gekoppelten 3D-Fluidströmung und Wärmeübertragung einbezogen. Die berechnete Laserstrahlabsorption wird durch die temperaturabhängigen Materialeigenschaften, die Lasercharakteristik und den Einfallswinkel des Laserstrahls bestimmt. Die freie Oberfläche jeder Phase wird mithilfe der Volume-of-Fluid Methode (VOF), berechnet und die Laser-Material-Wechselwirkung wird durch ein implementiertes Ray-Tracing-Verfahren modelliert, welches auf einem lokalisierten Level-Set-Algorithmus basiert. Anschließend wird die transiente Wärmeeinbringung und die Geometrie der Schweißnaht analysiert und mit dem temperaturunabhängigen Absorptionsmodell verglichen. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Temperaturabhängigkeit der Laserabsorption entscheidend für die genaue Bestimmung der Wärmeeinbringung und der Schmelzbadgeometrie ist. Das entwickelte Modell wurde anhand der experimentellen Untersuchungen validiert und die Bedeutung der Temperaturabhängigkeit bei der Laserstrahlabsorption wurde für die Simulation des Laserstrahltiefschweißens quantifiziert.
We introduce a novel adaptive Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) methodology for efficient construction of surrogate models for Bayesian inverse problems with expensive forward model evaluations. An adaptive design strategy focuses on optimizing both the positioning and simulation accuracy of training data in order to reduce the computational cost of simulating training data without compromising the fidelity of the posterior distributions of parameters. The method interleaves a goal-oriented active learning algorithm selecting evaluation points and tolerances based on the expected impact on the Kullback-Leibler divergence of surrogated and true posterior with a Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling of the posterior. The performance benefit of the adaptive approach is demonstrated for two simple test problems.
The main advantage of air-coupled ultrasonic testing is the absence of a liquid couplant, which can damage some materials. However, most air-coupled testing scenarios have the challenge of low signals and a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) several orders of magnitude lower than with couplant-assisted tech-niques. Since this challenge of small SNR also exists in radar technology, the pulse compression used there was adapted and applied to the physical conditions of air-coupled ultrasonic testing. This paper presents ultrasonic transmission measurements on a carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer plate using two experimental setups: 1) a thermoacoustic transmitter and an optical microphone and 2) a pair of ferroe-lectret transducers as transmitter and receiver. Thermoacoustic transmitters convert electrical energy to heat, which causes the air to expand thus producing acoustic waves. The optical microphone is based on a Fabry-Perot interferometer. Ferroelectrets are charged cellular polymers, having piezoelectric proper-ties and excellent acoustic matching to air. Both thermoacoustic transmitters and ferroelectrets are non-linear regarding the relationship between the excited sound pressure and the excitation voltage. Due to these physical boundary conditions, unipolar coding was used to modulate the excitation signals. Vari-ous codes were tested, and parameters of the excitation pulses were varied to find the optimal combina-tion for each experimental setup. The application of pulse compression to the combination of thermo-acoustic transmitter and optical microphone increased the signal-to-noise ratio by up to 16 dB and for the ferroelectret transducers by up to 23 dB.
Die Fließfähigkeit von Metallpulvern gilt als wichtige Pulvereigenschaft für den additiven Aufbau mittels Laser, wobei bisher wenige Arbeiten die Auswirkungen im Laserpulverauftragschweißen (Engl.: Directed Energy Deposition DED-LB) untersuchen. Arbeiten, die sich mit den Pulvereigenschaften für Pulverbettverfahren beschäftigen, zeigen Korrelationen zwischen Partikelgrößenverteilung und Fließeigenschaften mit der Bauteildichte und den mechanischen Eigenschaften. Sie bewerten insbesondere Pulverbettdichte und -stabilität. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden daher die Eigenschaften zweier Pulverfraktionen (20 µm – 63 µm und 63 µm – 150 µm) des austenitischen Stahls AISI 316L und deren freien Ausfluss im Vergleich zur Pulverdichte untersucht. Die Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die feinere Pulverfraktion eine um 14,5 % höhere Durchflussrate erzielt als die gröbere Fraktion. korreliert die Ergebnisse zur inneren Porosität und Partikelgrößenverteilung.
Die Analyse der Bauteilqualität zeigt einen geringen Einfluss der Korngrößenverteilung auf die Porosiät der DED-LB aufgebauten Quader.
Hochbelastete Stahlbauteile lassen sich durch Auftragen von Kobalt-Chrom Legierungen vor Verschleiß schützen. Die plötzliche Änderung der Materialeigenschaften führt jedoch zu Spannungen und Rissen im Anbindungsbereich. Daraus resultierende Abplatzungen stellen eine Gefahr für die Funktionsfähigkeit der Maschine und damit für Mensch und Umwelt dar. Um die Belastbarkeit der Schutzschicht zu verbessern, kann die Anbindung durch einen gradierten Materialübergang optimiert werden. Diese funktional gradierten Materialien können mittels pulverbasiertem Directed Energy Deposition aufgetragen werden. Die Methodik zum Aufbau und zur Qualitätssicherung solcher Materialien wurde in vorangegangenen Arbeiten für dickwandige Geometrien gezeigt. Für dünnwandige Geometrien ist die Anwendbarkeit bisher unzureichend untersucht worden. Diese Arbeit zeigt am Beispiel einer dünnwandigen gradierten Schneckengeometrie die Einsatzfähigkeit der Methodik. Dafür wird die Gefügestruktur der Gradierung auf Fehler untersucht und der Härteverlauf gemessen. Außerdem wird die relative Dichte anhand eines bereits trainierten neuronalen Netzes vorhergesagt und mit einer Porositätsuntersuchung verglichen.
Quantifying uncertainties in subsurface properties and stratigraphy can lead to better understanding of the ground conditions and enhance the design and assessment of geotechnical structures. Several studies have utilized Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data and employed Bayesian and Machine Learning methods to quantify the geological uncertainty, based on the Robertson’s soil classification charts and the Soil Behaviour Type Index (Ic). The incorporation of borehole data can reduce the stratigraphic uncertainty. Significant challenges can arise, however, mainly due to the intrinsic differences between field and laboratory-based soil classification systems, which can potentially lead to inconsistent soil classification. To this end, this study proposes a multivariate Gaussian Process model that utilizes site-specific data and: i) jointly models multiple categorical (USCS labels) and continuous (Ic) variables, ii) learns a (shared) spatial correlation structure and the betweenoutputs covariance, and iii) produces two types of dependent classification outputs. The results indicate that the integration of geotechnical and geological information into a unified model can provide more reliable predictions of the subsurface stratification, by allowing simultaneous interpretation of USCS and Ic profiles. Importantly, the model demonstrates the potential to integrate multiple variables of different types, aiming to contribute to the development of a methodology for joint modeling of geotechnical, geological and geophysical data.
Long-term dry interim storage may adversely affect the mechanical properties of spent fuel rods, possibly resulting in a reduced resilience during handling or transport after storage. The cladding is the first barrier for the spent fuel pellets. An established method for characterising the cladding material is the ring compression test (RCT), in which a small, cylindrical sample of the cladding tube is subjected to a compressive load. Radial hydrides may precipitate in zirconium-based alloys (Zircaloy) under pre-storage drying and during slow cooling, which result in embrittlement of the cladding material and eventually a possible sudden failure of cladding integrity under additional mechanical loads. The focus of the presented research is on the development of appropriate nu-merical methods for predicting the mechanical behaviour and identification of limiting conditions to prevent brittle fracture of Zircaloy claddings. A modelling approach based on cohesive zones is ex-plained which is able to reproduce the propagation of cracks initiated at radial hydrides in the zir-conium matrix. The developed methods are applied to defueled samples of cladding alloy ZIRLO®, which were subjected to a thermo-mechanical treatment to reorient existing circumferential hy-drides to radial hydrides. A selected sample showing sudden load drops during a quasi-static ring compression test is analysed by means of fracture mechanics for illustrative purposes. Based on the developed fracture mechanics approach, not only the deformation behaviour but also the fail-ure behaviour of irradiated as well as unirradiated Zircaloy claddings with radial hydrides under RCT loading conditions can be adequately described.
Das Laserstrahl-Lichtbogen-Hybridschweißverfahren kombiniert Laserstrahl- und Lichtbogenschweißverfahren in einem gemeinsamen Schmelzbad. Das Verfahren wurde Ende der 70er Jahre entwickelt, um die Synergieeffekte der Schweißprozesse effektiv zu nutzen. Durch die hohe Strahlungsintensität des Laserstrahls werden hohe Einschweißtiefen erreicht. Es ist möglich, die Anzahl der Schweißlagen zu reduzieren und somit die thermische Belastung des Grundwerkstoffes zu senken, da der Wärmeeintrag verringert wird. Die Überbrückung von Spalten und Kantenversatz kann durch die Zufuhr eines geschmolzenen Zusatzdrahtes durch das MSG-Verfahren erreicht werden. Der Zusatzdraht kann zudem das metallurgische Gefüge positiv beeinflussen. Daher ist das Laser-Hybridschweißverfahren ideal für das einlagige Schweißen von Dickblechen und wird bereits erfolgreich in der Schiffbauindustrie zum Schweißen von Blechen mit einer Dicke von bis zu 15 mm verwendet. Obwohl Hochleistungslaser heutzutage bereits im Multi-Kilowatt-Bereich verfügbar sind, sind sie für den industriellen Einsatz nur auf Stahlbleche mit einer Dicke von max. 15 mm geeignet. Hohe Abkühlgeschwindigkeiten, gravitationsbedingtes Austropfen beim einlagigen Schweißen von Dickblechen, Prozessinstabilitäten bei höheren Laserleistungen und Schweißnahtimperfektionen wie Rissbildung sind einige Faktoren, die den Einsatz von Laser-Hybridschweißtechnologien aktuell begrenzen. Ohne eine Badstütze ist eine Verringerung der Schweißgeschwindigkeit und somit der Abkühlgeschwindigkeit aufgrund unzulässiger Wurzelüberhöhungen oder gravitationsbedingtem Austropfen nicht möglich. Bei herkömmlichen Badstützen ist es allerdings erforderlich, dass sie mechanisch befestigt und die Wurzel entfernt oder nachbearbeitet werden muss. In dieser Arbeit wird als Alternative das innovative Konzept der elektromagnetischen Schweißbadsicherung vorgestellt und die Fähigkeiten dieses Verfahrens erläutert.
Auf dem Weg zum einlagigen Schweißen von dickwandigen Bauteilen – Prozesse, Potenziale, Beispiele
(2024)
Bislang kommt das Laserstrahlschweißen bzw. Laserhybridschweißen hauptsächlich bei Dickblechen mit einer Wandstärke von bis zu 15 mm zum Einsatz. Für Anwendungen über 20 mm war dieses Verfahren aufgrund einiger Herausforderungen bisher nur bedingt realisierbar. Die von der Ausgründung WeldNova GmbH der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) entwickelte Schweißbadsicherung ermöglicht nun ein einlagiges Schweißen von bis zu 40 mm Wandstärken mit einer Laserleistung von bis zu 20 kW.
Hybrid additive manufacturing is becoming increasingly important in the field of additive manufacturing. Hybrid approaches combine at least two different manufacturing processes. The focus of this work is the build-up of geometries onto conventionally manufactured parts using Powder Bed Fusion with Laser Beam of Metals (PBF-LB/M). The hybrid build-up requires a precise position detection system inside the PBF-LB/M machines to determine the exact position of the existing component. For this purpose, high-resolution camera systems can be utilized. However, the use of a camera system is associated with several challenges. The captured images are subject to various distortions of the optical path. Due to these distortions, it is not possible to use the images for measurements and, therefore, it is not possible to calculate the positions of objects. In this study a homography matrix is calculated to correct keystone distortion in the images. Different calibration patterns have been tested for the calculation of the homography matrix. The influence of the number of calibration points on the precision of position detection of objects is determined. Furthermore, the influence of an additional camera calibration by using ChArUco boards is evaluated. The result is a camera calibration workflow with associated calibration pattern for a precise position detection of parts inside PBF-LB/M machines allowing a hybrid build-up with minimum physical offset between base component and build-up.
Study the Impact of Spacer at Thermal Degradation Process of MLI-based Insulation in Fire Condition
(2024)
To reduce carbon dioxide emissions, energy carries such as hydrogen consider to be a solution. Consumption of hydrogen as a fuel meets several restrictions such as its low volumetric energy density in gas phase. To tackle this problem, storage as well as transportation in liquid phase is recommended. To be able to handle this component in liquid phase, an efficient thermal insulation e.g., MLI insulation is required. Some studies have been revealed vulnerability of this type of insulation against high heat flux, for instance a fire accident. Some investigations have been depicted the importance of consideration of the MLI thermal degradation in terms of its reflective layer. However, limited number of studies have been focused on the thermal degradation of spacer material and its effect on the overall heat flux.
In this study, through systematic experimental measurements, the effect of thermal loads on glass fleece, glass paper as well as polyester spacers are investigated. The results are reported in various temperature and heat flux profiles. Interpreting the temperature profiles revealed as the number of spacers in the medium increases, the peak temperature detectable by the temperature sensor on the measurement plate decreases. Moreover, the contribution of each individual spacer in all cases regarding the experimental temperature range is assessed to be around 8%. This value may increase to around 50% for glass paper and polyester spacers, and to around 25% for glass fleece spacers as the number of spacer layers increases up to six layers.
To utilize the outcomes of the experiment later and integrate the results into numerical and CFD simulations, a model is proposed for the mentioned experimental temperature range up to 300°C to predict a heat flux attenuation factor. The model proposes a fitting factor that can reproduce the least square fitted line to the experimental data.
In the course of decarbonizing the energy industry, cryogenic energy carriers as liquefied hydrogen (LH2) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) are seen as having great potential. In technical applications, the challenge is to keep these energy carriers cold for a long time. This is achieved in the road transport sector and also stationary applications by thermal super insulations (TSI) which based on double-walled tanks with vacuum and multilayer insulation (MLI) in the interspace. This study focuses on the behaviour of widely used combustible MLI in a fire scenario, at vacuum and atmospheric pressure conditions. The former corresponds to the typical design condition and the latter to the condition after an outer hull rapture of a tank. Furthermore, two fire scenarios were taken into account: a standard-oriented approach and a hydrocarbon fire-oriented approach. For the study, a test rig was applied that allows testing of TSI at industrial conditions and subsequent analysis of TSI samples. The test rig allows thermal loading and performance analysis of TSI samples at the same time. Comparing the tests, the samples degraded differently. However, no sudden failure of the entire MLI was observed in any test. These results are relevant for the evaluation of incidents with tanks for the storage of cryogenic fluids and can thus contribute to the improvement of TSI and the development of emergency measures for the protection of persons and infrastructures.
A damaging action of HNO3-55% only occurs in combination with its decomposition into nitrous gases, which can be caused by UV radiation. In a laboratory test, transparent HDPE jerrycans have been exposed to both UV radiation and 55 wt-% nitric acid solution at (41 ± 2)°C, for up to 20 days. For comparison, UV radiant exposure (21 days) and nitric acid exposure (up to 6 weeks) were performed separately, at nearly equal temperatures. The respective damages are compared with FTIR spectroscopy in ATR and HT-gel permeation chromatography (GPC) on a molecular level and with hydraulic internal pressure testing as a component test. For the used jerrycans, relevant oxidation can only be found after the combined exposure. The gradual increase in oxidative damage shows the good reproducibility of the lab exposure. The decomposition of nitric acid into nitrous gases by UV radiation – as well as the jerrycan oxidation – is also observed at lower HNO3 concentration (28 wt- %). Similar results are obtained after outdoor tests. Again, the damage occurs only after combined exposure, in contrast to the exposures to UV only and to HNO3 only, which were conducted in parallel. Outdoor exposures are most readily accepted as they represent possible end-use conditions. However, the reproducibility of these exposures is poor due to the large temporal variations in weather. There are also several safety risks, which is why the number of replicates remains limited. Since the outdoor and lab exposure tests show the same qualitative results, it is appropriate to conduct systematic studies in the laboratory. After 6 days of lab exposure, the oxidation damage is rated as critical, which corresponds to about 1/10 year in Central Europe, according to the UV radiant exposure. It should be noted that this amount can also occur in two sunny weeks.
Next to primary functions, energy-related products have an increasing number of additional functions. This affects the overall environmental footprint, but the question is how? A number of European policy strategies, initiatives and measures, such as the Green Deal, the Circular Economy Action Plan,the Ecodesign Directive and the EU Energy Labelling, aim to ensure that the environmental impact of the overall product is better determined, communicated and finally reduced. A core element of these efforts is the DIN EN 4555x series of standards. However, there is currently no comprehensive and systematic classification of the additional product functions or an approach to assess the associated positive and negative environmental impacts.
Therefore, we present in this study an environmental assessment approach for additional product functions and illustrate its application in the case of fridge-freezers.
A key element of the life-cycle-oriented methodology is an assessment matrix to categorize and evaluate the direct, indirect and systemic impacts of products’ functions. Based on semiquantitative assessments of experts, the matrix provides an indication of how the additional function affects the overall environmental product impact as well as specific product aspects such as durability or reparability. Based on the results experts can discuss and better understand how specific functions can influence various stages of the product life cycle and how intended systemic changes or rebound effects could occur. As part of the approach, a representative survey was conducted to analyze consumers’ knowledge and information needs. Based on the results, recommendations for purchasing decisions and the consumer information were developed. This paper presents the results from the assessment of the additional functions of fridge-freezers.
Pioneering durability in electronics - The role of standardisation in policymaking and vice versa
(2024)
This paper highlights the role of standardisation in enabling greener electronics in the EU. It presents an analysis of the evolving landscape of material efficiency standardization, the majority of which has been undertaken in the framework of the European Ecodesign Directive, soon to be repealed by the Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation. The impending policy shift will include a very broad extension of product scope, a strengthening of the way in which material efficiency aspects are addressed, and wider potential for product labelling. During the stakeholder consultation process, the European Commission announced that the durability of products would be one of the major topics in the new regulatory approach - hence the specific focus of this paper on durability scoring.
The paper first examines the policy and standardization context, and then provides an overview of material efficiency indexes and scoring systems currently in place or being developed. It highlights where standardization is following policymaking, and where standardization is paving the way for more circular products. Scoring systems and indexes could potentially be used for both (i) setting minimum requirements for products entering the EU market, and (ii) consumer labels on material efficiency aspects such as product durability that could trigger environmentally sustainable purchase decisions. Subsequently, a methodological framework for a comprehensive durability scoring system that could be developed in standards is proposed, and the potential for these to be used as a basis for product legislation is explored. Potential durability criteria are listed, divided into technical, servicerelated and further aspects. Technical aspects include external factors that influence the durability of products such as drop/shock resistance. Service-related aspects include, for example, pre-purchase information provision on battery replaceability or availability of software updates. Other aspects include for example pro.
Distributed fiber optic sensing (DFOS) technique is a promising and robust non-destructive testing tool that can seamlessly acquire environmental conditions over large scales. Therefore, it has found extensive applications in structural health monitoring. Its appeal for monitoring underground facilities lies in the intrinsic properties of the optical fiber, such as immunity to magnetic interference, small size, chemical inertia, etc. This paper provides a concise overview of DFOS applications in underground facility monitoring. Following a brief introduction to the workingbnprinciple of the DFOS technique, various examples are provided to demonstrate how distributed fiber sensors contribute to monitoring underground facilities. The paper presents unpublished field test results with an emphasis in the energy sector, including monitoring gas storage facilities, geothermal reservoir exploration, and ground movement detection. Furthermore, the paper identifies several directions for enhancing the DFOS system.
Implementation and validation of robot-enabled embedded sensors for structural health monitoring
(2024)
In the past decades, structural health monitoring (SHM) has matured into a viable supplement to regular inspections, facilitating the execution of repair and maintenance work in the early stages of structural damage. With the advent of wireless technologies and advancements in information and communication technologies, civil infrastructure has been increasingly instrumented with wireless sensor nodes to record, analyze, and communicate data relevant to SHM. A promising method for SHM is to embed sensors directly into concrete for recording SHM data from inside structural elements. In this paper, a sensor system for embedment into concrete is proposed, able to assess SHM data recorded from concrete. Power is supplied to the sensors on-demand by quadruped robots, which also collect the SHM data via radio-frequency identification (RFID), providing an automated and efficient SHM process. In laboratory experiments, the capability of the sensor system of automatically collecting the SHM data using quadruped robots is validated. In summary, the integration of RFID technology and robot-based inspection presented in this study demonstrates a vital approach to evolve current SHM practices towards more digitalized and automated SHM.
The research project focuses on tackling the detection, measurement, and elimination of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from polluted groundwater, with a particular emphasis on addressing short (C4-C7) and ultrashort (C1-C3) chain PFAS. Given the widespread use of PFAS in various products, they are commonly found in groundwater near industrial and military sites in Germany and Israel. Moreover, recent regulations limiting the use of long chain PFAS have led industries to shift towards shorter chain alternatives. Hence, our efforts are geared towards refining detection, quantification, and removal methods for short and ultrashort chain PFAS. In terms of detection, ww are developing passive sampling devices capable of collecting and tracking the temporal distribution of PFAS species in groundwater. This will enable us to analyze contaminations in German and Israeli groundwater using cutting-edge analytical techniques. Additionally, contaminated groundwater will undergo a two-stage treatment process aimed at concentrating the relatively low PFAS concentrations using innovative membrane technologies such as closed-circuit reverse osmosis and mixed matrix composite nanofiltration membrane adsorbers. Subsequently, the streams containing higher PFAS concentrations will be treated through coagulation, with the remaining PFAS being adsorbed onto carbonaceous nanomaterials. The outcome of this research will include the creation of advanced tools for detecting, measuring, and eliminating PFAS from polluted groundwater, while also enhancing our understanding of the scope of these contaminations.
Brittle Failure Limits of Spent Fuel Claddings Subjected to Long-Term Dry Interim Storage Conditions
(2024)
The mechanical properties of spent fuel claddings can be adversely affected under the conditions of long-term dry interim storage, so that the failure limits may be reached in case of mechanical loads during handling or transport after storage. Pre-storage drying and the early stage of interim storage can expose the cladding to higher temperatures and higher tensile hoop stresses than those associated with in-reactor operation and pool storage. During slow cooling of a cladding tube under internal pressure, radial hydrides may precipitate in zirconium-based cladding alloys. This can lead to embrittlement of the material and sudden failure of the cladding integrity under mechanical stress. In order to prevent brittle failure, numerical methods are being developed to predict the mechanical behaviour and identify limiting conditions. Experimental investigations, numerical analyses and evaluation methods are discussed.
An established experimental method for characterising cladding materials is the Ring Compression Test (RCT). Some test results on irradiated cladding tubes after operation in pressure water reactors are publicly available. However, it is helpful to carry out studies on unirradiated surrogate claddings with similar material properties to reduce the effort associated with irradiated samples in hot cells and to perform material tests with a wider range of parameters. On the basis of such experimental data, load-displacement curves have been numerically analysed for a selection of cladding materials.
Radial hydrides can cause a sample to break suddenly due to fracture even at low deformation. Noticeable load drops in the RCT are caused by unstable crack propagation through the radial hydride network. The failure mechanism is quasi-cleavage in the hydrides and micro-void nucleation, growth, and coalescence in the zirconium matrix, with ductile tearing patches connecting adjacent hydrides. The cohesive zone approach was used to simulate the failure process taking into account the radial hydride morphology.
The developed method can adequately describe both the deformation and failure behaviour of irradiated as well as unirradiated claddings of zirconium-based alloys with radial hydrides under RCT conditions. Limiting conditions can be expressed in terms of fracture energy and cohesive strength.
The aim of the ZIKA research project, funded by the BMBF funding program FORKA (FKZ:15S9446 A-C), is the automated detection of internal corrosion of radioactive drums using non-destructive testing (NDT). The newly gained findings will be combined with research results from the previous project EMOS (FKZ:15S9420), which dealt with the external damage of drums. Using NDT, internal corrosion and possible internal sources of damage can be identified before they become a safety-relevant issue. However, if internally sourced damages can be seen externally, the integrity of the damaged drum is no longer guaranteed, which has significant consequences. Therefore, early detection before integrity failure is of particular importance for interim storage facilities with low- and medium-level radioactive waste drums.
In order to protect natural gypsum deposits and to compensate for the decreasing amount of Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) gypsum it is necessary to develop and explore new sources of gypsum. For this purpose, the potentials of different gypsum wastes are investigated in the study “GipsRec 2.0”, funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany).
On the one hand, the project worked on a new processing technology for gypsum fiberboards (GFB). While the recycling of gypsum plasterboards has already been carried out on an industrial scale for several years, the recycling of gypsum fiberboards (GFB) has proven to be challenging. Gypsum fiberboards from demolition sites and offcuts from GFB production were used for these investigations. The tests were conducted on a technical scale. Furthermore, various synthetic gypsums are being investigated with regard to their suitability for gypsum production. The analyses are carried out on production residues.
In this project, a promising process for gypsum fiberboard recycling could be developed, as well as other waste gypsums are investigated and evaluated with regard to their potential as secondary raw material. In addition, selected process routes are assessed for their environmental impact using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach.
Die Einstufung von Hausmüllverbrennungsasche (IBA) als gefährlich oder nicht gefährlich nach der Gefahreneigenschaft HP14 (ökotoxisch) ist nach wie vor umstritten, da es noch keine keine allgemein anerkannten Methoden zur Bewertung gibt. Wenn die Berechnungsregeln angewendet werden sollen angewendet werden sollen, sind Kenntnisse über die chemische Zusammensetzung von IBA erforderlich. Informationen über über die chemische Zusammensetzung von IBA können mit einem Ansatz gewonnen werden, der auf der Gruppierung von Substanzen. Für IBA können vier Stoffgruppen definiert werden: 1. elementare und legierte Metalle, 2. leicht wasserlösliche Stoffe, 3. schwer lösliche Stoffe und 4. Stoffe mit starken chemischen Bindungen. Elementares und legiertes Cu und Zn sind in der IBA vorhanden und werden in der Regel als Nichteisenmetallfraktion zurückgewonnen, zumindest die größeren Partikel. Zn-Partikel, die kleiner als 1 mm sind, werden als H410 eingestuft, feine Partikel von Cu nur als H411. Die wasserlösliche Fraktion kann mit Standardauslaugungsmethoden quantifiziert werden Auslaugungsmethoden quantifiziert werden, z. B. bei einem Flüssigkeits-Feststoff-Verhältnis (L/S) von 2 oder 10 l/kg. Sowohl die Sulfate von Zn als auch von Cu gehören zu dieser Gruppe. In einer neueren Veröffentlichung wurde gezeigt, dass bei den oben genannten Metalle die ausgelaugte Menge weit unter dem Grenzwert von 1.000 mg/kg liegt, selbst wenn stöchiometrische Faktoren angewendet werden. Stoffgruppe 3 sind potenzielle H410-Stoffe. Dabei handelt es sich um Carbonate, Hydroxide und Oxide der betreffenden Elemente, die löslich sind in schwachen organischen Säuren wie Essigsäure löslich sind. Die Worst-Case-Stoffe der Gruppe 3, d. h. die Verbindungen mit den höchsten stöchiometrischen Faktoren, sind CuCO3xCu(OH)2 und ZnO. Stoffe mit starken chemischen Bindungen wie Silikate oder Sulfide sind nur löslich in starken Säuren (z.B. Königswasser) löslich und haben keinen Ökotoxizitäts-Gefahrencode. Das Mobilisierungsverhalten der relevanten Schwermetalle und damit der Gruppe der schwer schwerlöslichen Verbindungen kann mit der 4-stufigen sequentiellen Extraktion untersucht werden. Für die HP14 Einstufung könnte auch eine einstufige Extraktion ausreichend sein. Nur die Elemente Zn und Cu sind für die HP14-Einstufung der IBA von Bedeutung, da die Feststoffgehalte aller anderen Schwermetalle unterhalb des Feststoffgehalte aller anderen Schwermetalle unter der Cut-Off-Grenze von 0,1 % liegen, selbst wenn man sie in chemischen Verbindungen mit stöchiometrischen Faktoren. Im Ergebnis wurde gezeigt, dass IBA in der Regel als nicht gefährlich einzustufen ist.
Packages for the transport of spent nuclear fuel are designed to endure severe accidents. To obtain approval, these transport packages must adhere to the specification-based criteria of the international transport regulations SSR-6 of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). To ensure compliance with these requirements, specific mechanical and thermal tests need to be addressed with respect to the package type. Typically, SSR-6 prescribes a mechanical test followed by a thermal fire test as part of different testing scenarios. To approve the latter test of the sequence, BAM performs calorimeter tests in advance with so-called fire reference packages for characterizing the actual fire and its impact on the package to be tested. Packages are designed with different geometry sizes depending on their purpose. For previous tests, the implemented test setups in the fire test stand were sufficiently dimensioned and could cover all requirements in this respect. However, to cover additional testing needs in the future, BAM is expanding the test setup for the purpose of testing significantly larger packages.
In previous test setups one ring burner for propane surrounding the test specimen was sufficient. The limiting size in this configuration was the design height of the transport package to be tested. According to the thermal test of the IAEA-Regulations [1], a 30-minute fully engulfing 800°C pool fire or an equally severe fire, e.g., propane gas fire, must be applied to the transport package. Possible adjustments such as nozzle cross-section and propane mass flow can be adjusted to a certain extent. Further modifications, to cover significantly higher and larger packages all-around with a fully engulfing fire, must be accomplished with an additional, second burner ring. Both burner rings had the same dimensions and were mounted on top of each other at different heights to create a significantly larger volume of fire that completely engulfs the package including its impact limiter.
To meet the IAEA regulatory boundary conditions, the enhanced fire test stand with the second burner ring is tested with a large fire reference package and will then be used for real-size transport packages after all parameters are successfully met. This fire reference package represents the external geometry of a generic transport cask for radioactive material and is equipped with numerous temperature sensors to record temperature curves at the interior wall surfaces.
Um die Ausbreitungsmechanismen von Vegetationsbränden und besonders bei Bodenbränden besser zu verstehen, wurden die Einflussfaktoren auf die Brandausbreitung näher untersucht. Da die Brandausbreitung auch in starkem Maße von der lokalen Vegetation abhängt, war eine Charakterisierung der lokalen Vegetation und der Bodenverhältnisse wichtig. Die Wetterverhältnisse spielen einerseits im Vorfeld des Brandes durch längere Dürreperioden als auch während des Brandes, z.B. durch den Windeinfluss, zusätzlich eine große Rolle.
Durch die numerische Simulation kann eine größere Variation der Einflussgrößen abgebildet werden als durch die zeitlich und finanziell begrenzten experimentellen Möglichkeiten. Für die Berechnungen wird der Fire Dynamic Simulators (FDS) mit dem Paket WFDS verwendet. Dadurch kann mit einem vereinfachten 3-Phasen-Reaktionskinetikmodell, bestehend aus Dehydrierung, Pyrolyse, Kohleoxidation, die Ausbreitung von Vegetationsbränden verschiedener Waldbodenarten untersucht werden. Es wurden dazu 6 typische Pflanzenarten und Bodenproben aus Kiefern-, Buchen und Eichenbeständen ausgewählt.
Die gesammelten Waldbodenproben wurden alle hinsichtlich des Wassergehalts, des organischen Gehalts, der Packungsdichte, der Dichte und der statistisch ermittelten Pflanzenartenverteilung charakterisiert. Das kinetische Abbrandverhalten wurde durch Thermogravimetrische Analyse (TGA) untersucht. Alle diese Daten wurden als Eingabeparameter für die Simulation verwendet. Die numerischen Simulationen werden mit Experimenten im kleinen, mittleren und Real-Maßstab validiert.
Although intense wildfire research has been done in the US and in Australia, it cannot be transferred directly to the situation in Europe as the local vegetation has a significant influence on the fire spread. The EU-funded project TREEADS and the so-called German pilot within the project are concentrating on wildfire in Europe. Extensive experimental research is done on local vegeta-tion in Germany and the experimental results are used to adjust the Fire Dynam-ics Simulator (FDS) to local vegetation as a fuel in the calculations. The particle model and the boundary fuel model are developed for the simulation of forest fires. Both models require the kinetic input for the dehydration, pyrolysis, and char oxidation process. This three-step simplified model describes the basic fuel combustion kinetic. Most published simulations use the default kinetic input of pine needles from FDS user manual.
To adjust the simulation to local vegetation, the corresponding kinetic parame-ters have been experimental investigated. Samples of pine needles, moss and other falling leaves were collected, air dried and grinded into powder. The TG analysis of all these samples were done under different heating rate of 5, 10 and 20K/min.
The activation energy and the corresponding pre-exponential factor were calcu-lated. The results show that fire spread depends significantly on the vegetation and comparison with small scale experiments show good agreement using the new kinetic parameters. The new model is applied to a larger scenario and will be compared to the results of large-scale experiments for further validation of the model.
Heavy-weight packages for the safe transport of radioactive material are equippedwith impact limiters often built ofwood-filled steel sheet structures to fulfil the requirements of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) regulations. The requirements definemechanical tests followed by a thermal test, including criteria ensuring the package design’s ability to withstand severe accidents and provide a high level of technical safety.
Impact limiters are a package component mainly designed for the packages to withstand severe mechanical accident scenarios. In drop tests the impact limiters absorb the kinetic energy during impact of the package. The package must then - with its pre-damaged impact limiters - endure a thermal test defined precisely in the IAEA regulations as a 30-min fully engulfing 800 °C-fire. After the fire, a wood-filled impact limiter may continue to release thermal energy from an ongoing combustion process, defining relevant package temperatures. The energy flow from a possible burning impact limiter to the package is important for the safety evaluation of transport packages. To investigate the combustion behaviour of densely packed layers of spruce wood, encapsulated in pre-damaged cylindrical metal enclosures, a test set-up has been realised. The set-up consists of a combustion chamber to perform these tests under defined boundary conditions. The temperature development of the test specimens will be observed fromoutside with a thermographic imager, with HD-Cameras, and the mass loss will be measured during the entire test. Airflow conditions in the combustion chamber are analysed using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) calculations in OpenFOAM. The planned combustion test setup is described.
A monitoring and surveillance system is a mandatory element to ensure that a radioactive waste disposal facility provides and meets the required level of safety during both its operational and closure periods. In this study an innovative approach for the identification and monitoring of the structural integrity of stored radioactive drums is presented. The activities were carried out in the context of the European Project PREDIS, whose goal is the development of a robust and reliable sensing technology for monitoring and long-term storage of radioactive waste packaging systems.
Specifically, the focus was set on the development of innovative and smart sensor technologies, non-destructive examination tools, and/or devices capable to improve the safety of the storage by minimizing the number of interventions of cemented waste packages. Both conventional and innovative techniques, such as muon-tomography, SiLiF neutron and SciFi gamma detection, or contactless and smart radio transceiver technology provided with radiation monitoring sensors, have been considered and adapted for the use under repository conditions. Indeed, gamma and neutron detection techniques exploit the radiological information coming from inside the drums, while imaging techniques proved to be effective in spotting high density objects embedded inside the concrete: together, they allow to improve safety and security and can provide an early alert on behavioral changes hinting at anomalies in the drums.
Indirect combustion noise due to the interaction of flow inhomogeneities with a choked combustion-chamber exit is an important cause of combustion instability in solid rocket motors.
Moreover, it is believed to be an issue in electrical-power generation turbines and aero-engines. If these flow inhomogeneities are essentially characterized by the fluid having a locally appreciablydifferent thermodynamic state, the acoustic response engendered by its interaction with the combustion-chamber exit is commonly referred to as entropy noise. In this paper, dedicated numerical-simulation results of entropy-patch choked-nozzle interactions are presented. Two types of entropy patches were considered: rectangular slugs and circular spots. Moreover, analytical-model-based analysis, of said simulation results, is presented. Based on said analysis, the authors posit the existence of three modeling regimes: the quasi-steady-modeling regime, the blended-physical-effects regime, and the inertial-modeling regime.
Das Ausbreitungsverhalten geführter Ultraschallwellen ermöglicht die großflächige Prüfung von Platten und schalenförmigen Bauteilen wie Rohren und Laminaten auf Fehlstellen von wenigen Prüfpunkten aus. Während die beschränkte Divergenz der geführten Wellen die Ultraschallprüfung begünstigt, erschwert das dispersive und multimodale Verhalten der Lamb-Wellen die Auswertung der Ultraschallsignale. Die dispersive und multimodale Wellenausbreitung verkompliziert die Bestimmung der Fehlerposition bei der Auswertung der Geschwindigkeiten einzelner Wellenpakete. Zudem ist es herausfordernd, einen einfachen Zusammenhang zwischen den Reflexionen der Fehlstelle und deren Größe und Form herzustellen. Eine Möglichkeit zur genauen Bestimmung der Fehlerposition und -geometrie bietet der direkte Vergleich der Messsignale mit den Signalen aus einem Simulationsmodell. Die Nachbildung des Schadens im Simulationsmodell stellt ein inverses Problem dar, das iterativ gelöst werden kann, indem ein Vorwärtsmodell immer weiter optimiert wird. Klassische Ansätze wie die Finite Elemente Methode (FEM) sind für die Simulation von Ultraschallwellen aufgrund der kleinen Wellenlängen im Vergleich zur Bauteilgröße meist ineffizient. Aus diesem Grund basiert das vorgestellte Vorwärtsmodell auf der semi-analytischen Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method (SBFEM), die große Teile der Wellenausbreitung analytisch berechnet. In diesem Beitrag wird die Validierung des zweidimensionalen Modells an Platten mit einer rechteckigen Nut als Ersatzfehler präsentiert und es werden erste Schritte zur Validierung von 3D-Modellen vorgestellt.
The consideration of ageing mechanisms is with integration into the IAEA-requirements now obligatory for the design of transport packages. For packages intended to be used for shipment after storage the consideration of the effects of ageing mechanisms during storage in safety analyses and the implementation of corresponding instructions for operation and maintenance are required. Therefore, these packages have been maintained during storage in a manner that all requirements specified in the IAEA-requirements and in the applicable certificates of approval have been fulfilled.
BAM is the competent authority in Germany for evaluating the thermal and mechanical design of packages for the transport of radioactive materials. In this context, BAM also evaluates the aging mechanisms and aging effects occurring during the long-term storage period of such transport packages. BAM has developed a guideline for the implementation of ageing assessment and of the measures for ageing management into the approval procedure based on IAEA-requirements.
The goal of the presented paper is to introduce this guideline and the general approach for ageing management requirements and to describe the application to a specific package design. The type and amount of the ageing management not only depend on the use of the packaging, but also on the accessibility of the components that are considered in the ageing assessment. The different operating phases of a packaging are considered for the ageing assessment, such as loading, interim storage or transport.
The implementation of measures for ageing management is divided into three levels – systemic measures, package design related measures and documentation. The systemic measures are attributed to the general management system and define the whole activities for organization of ageing management like structure, responsibilities, documentation, reports and evaluation. The package design related measures are defined in an ageing management plan. These measures shall ensure that the anticipated changes of the package design under consideration of ageing effects still complies with the design approval specification. Therefore, an ageing surveillance program and, if necessary, a gap analysis program shall be developed. The ageing management documentation ensures the continuous documentation of the compliance of a specific package to the approved package design, comprising mainly records resulting from operation and surveillance.
We introduce a passive smart dust concept as a novel solution for environmental monitoring. Utilizing chemical reagents like colorimetric indicators and other chemosensors, these particles detect varying environmental conditions. We developed paper-based sensors that are both cost-effective and eco-friendly. In practical tests, these sensors, dispersed over a designated area, successfully identified hazardous substances by changing their color when exposed to acids or bases. This color change was remotely detectable using a drone-mounted color camera. The data thus obtained was processed through specialized software, accurately pinpointing areas of contamination. This method proves the efficacy and scalability of passive smart dust technology for real-time, environmentally sustainable remote sensing of hazardous materials
Die größten Vorteile der luftgekoppelten Ultraschallprüfung sind: die berührungslose Prüfung und der Verzicht auf ein flüssiges Koppelmittel. Allerdings weisen die meisten luftgekoppelten Prüfszenarien ein sehr geringes Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnis (SNR) auf und die Pegel, die von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern realisiert werden, sind um mehrere Größenordnungen kleiner.
Da diese Herausforderung auch in anderen Disziplinen wie bspw. der Radartechnik existiert und dort ebenfalls eine entscheidende Rolle spielt, wurde die dort eingesetzte Pulskompression auf die physikalischen Gegebenheiten der luftgekoppelten Ultraschallprüfung angepasst und angewandt.
Dieser Beitrag präsentiert die Ergebnisse von zwei Versuchsaufbauten: 1) ein thermoakustischer Sender und ein optisches Mikrofon und 2) ein Paar Ferroelektret-Wandler als Sender und Empfänger. Aufgrund der physikalischen Randbedingungen wurden unipolare Kodierungen verwendet. Die Verwendung von unipolaren Kodes zur Modulation der Anregungssignale stellt dabei eine neue Methode dar, die so die Pulskompression für Ferroelektret- und thermoakustische Wandler ermöglichen soll. Die Anwendung der Pulskompression auf die Kombination aus thermoakustischem Sender und optischem Mikrofon konnte das Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnis um bis zu 15 dB und für die Ferroelektret-Wandler um bis zu 23 dB erhöhen.
This paper explores combining a gimbal-mounted tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) sensor and a video camera to create a virtual gas camera for methane leak detection. This provides a low-to-zero-cost extension of typical TDLAS gas tomography systems. A prototype setup mounted on a ground robot is evaluated. Results acquired using a simulated methane leak show the feasibility of the virtual gas camera, accurately detecting methane leaks by overlaying concentrations onto a visual image. While the acquisition time is significantly longer than for traditional gas cameras, potential enhancements are discussed. The study concludes that the virtual gas camera is feasible and useful, despite its longer acquisition time. It serves as a valuable software-only addition to typical TDLAS gas tomography systems, offering quickly-available on-site data augmentation for visual leak assessment at low-to-zero cost.
This paper outlines significant advancements in our previously developed aerial gas tomography system, now optimized to reconstruct 2D tomographic slices of gas plumes with enhanced precision in outdoor environments. The core of our system is an aerial robot equipped with a custom-built 3-axis aerial gimbal, a Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS) sensor for CH4 measurements, a laser rangefinder, and a wide-angle camera, combined with a state-of-the-art gas tomography algorithm. In real-world experiments, we sent the aerial robot along gate-shaped flight patterns over a semi-controlled environment with a static-like gas plume, providing a welldefined ground truth for system evaluation. The reconstructed cross-sectional 2D images closely matched the known ground truth concentration, confirming the system’s high accuracy and reliability. The demonstrated system’s capabilities open doors for potential applications in environmental monitoring and industrial safety, though further testing is planned to ascertain the system’s operational boundaries fully.
Gas Distribution Mapping (GDM) is essential in monitoring hazardous environments, where uneven sampling and spatial sparsity of data present significant challenges. Traditional methods for GDM often fall short in accuracy and expressiveness. Modern learning-based approaches employing Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) require regular-sized input data, limiting their adaptability to irregular and sparse datasets typically encountered in GDM. This study addresses these shortcomings by showcasing Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) for learningbased GDM on irregular and spatially sparse sensor data. Our Radius-Based, Bi-Directionally connected GNN (RABI-GNN) was trained on a synthetic gas distribution dataset on which it outperforms our previous CNN-based model while overcoming its constraints. We demonstrate the flexibility of RABI-GNN by applying it to real-world data obtained in an industrial steel factory, highlighting promising opportunities for more accurate GDM models.
Packages for the transport of radioactive material are designed to en-dure severe accidents. Packages for the transportation of radioactive material must demonstrate that the package can withstand certain prescribed tests from the IAEA Regulations [1]. In addition to mechanical tests, a thermal test in form of a fire test must be carried out. As packages to be tested at BAM are signifi-cantly larger than previous package designs, BAM has expanded an existing fire test stand. A modular concept is chosen, which means that the arrangement of the burner nozzles can be adapted to the test specimen. The dimensions of the burner rings, the type, the orientation and the number of burner nozzles can be varied depending on the test specimen. In addition, various pumps can be used to set the corresponding mass flow. With the help of a calorimeter test, the fire test stand can be qualified for a specific size of packages regarding the boundary conditions of the IAEA Regulations [1]. Due to the typically wood filled impact limiters in German package designs, a fire test is necessary, as experiments have shown that possible openings that occurred during a mechanical test contributed to the igni-tion of the wood filled impact limiters within the prescribed 30 minutes of the IAEA Regulations [1]. From a series of experiments, two experiments are pre-sented to show the possibilities to obtain different temperatures and temperature rates in the test specimen. In addition to sensor data, the heat flux into the package is calculated to verify that the IAEA boundary conditions are satisfied. In addition to the temperature data, other data such as wind speed and wind direction are also recorded to explain subsequent effects in the measurement data in a comprehen-sible manner.
Germany had been transporting spent fuel to the reprocessing plant in Sellafield and La Hague for decades until around 2005. Resulting from the obligation to take back the vitrified high-level waste from reprocessing six CASTOR® HAW28M filled with 168 canisters with radioactive waste in vitrified form were transported from Sellafield to the interim storage facility Biblis in 2020. Rail wagons were used for the transport to the port in Barrow-in-Furness, where they were loaded into a dedicated seagoing vessel, certified as INF Class 3 according to the INF Code. This was the first time that vitrified high level waste with considerable heat load was transported under a German design approval certificate.
BAM was involved in the authority assessment of the conditions for the sea transport. For the first transport BAM required among others, assessment of temperature distribution during transport, logging of temperatures of cargo bays and graphical imaging of temperatures of the bay with the cask in order to ensure compliance with temperature specifications, e.g. maximal neutron absorber and gasket temperatures. Special interest was taken in the identification of possible events exceeding the specified temperatures considering the different philosophies of IMDG code and its supplement INF code regarding temperature control of hatches. Results show compliance with assumed conditions.
Die Transformation der Energienutzung von konventionellen zu erneuerbaren Quellen führt dazu, dass zukünftig mehr Energie effizient zwischengespeichert werden muss. Eine Möglichkeit der elektrochemischen Zwischenspeicherung bieten Lithium-Ionen-Batterien. Hierfür können ausgemusterte Automobilantriebsbatterien verwendet werden. Erfüllen sie die hohen Anforderungen des mobilen Bereichs nicht mehr, haben sie oftmals noch eine ausreichende Kapazität und Leistungsfähigkeit für die stationäre Zwischenspeicherung.
Neben der Verwendung der Batterien im größeren Maßstab, z.B. bei Energieversorgern, werden durch den vermehrten Einsatz von Photovoltaik-Anlagen in Ein- und Mehrfamilienhäusern verstärkt Zwischenspeicher für Privathaushalte nachgefragt. Dies birgt auch für Einsatzkräfte neue Herausforderungen in der Gefahrenabwehr.
Im vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) geförderten Verbundprojekt „SEE-2L – Sicherheit elektrochemischer Energiespeicher in Second Life Anwendungen“ wurden Versuche mit Second Life Modulen durchgeführt. Verbundpartner im Projekt waren neben der vfdb die Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg und die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung. Zudem war das Institut der Feuerwehr Nordrhein-Westfalen eingebunden.
Die durchgeführten Versuche bilden eine Grundlage für die Einordnung der Batteriespeicher, z.B. aus Sicht des baulichen Brandschutzes, zur Methodik der Brandbekämpfung oder zur Risikobewertung hinsichtlich der Prozess- und Anlagensicherheit.
Im Beitrag werden die Versuchsergebnisse vorgestellt und Ansätze für deren Anwendung gezeigt. Um die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zu vermitteln, wurde im Projekt zudem ein Schulungskonzept für Einsätze mit Lithium-Ionen-Technologien erarbeitet, das im Beitrag präsentiert wird. Es besteht aus theoretischen und praktischen Anteilen, sodass bei den Feuerwehren praxisnah aus- bzw. fortgebildet werden kann.
Based on the state-of-the-art research and regulations, the application of the fracture mechanics master curve (MC) concept to ferritic ductile cast iron (DCI) is being investigated in a joint research project between MPA Stuttgart and BAM Berlin. This paper outlines the research approach, the planned investigations and first results of the experimental program.
Dieser Beitrag befasst sich mit der Entwicklung eines wirtschaftlichen und robusten Verfahrens zum Schweißen dicker Stahlbleche. Es werden Ergebnisse für das Fügen von Blechen im Dickenbereich von 25 mm bis 80 mm vorgestellt. Die 30 mm dicken Schweißnähte konnten im Stumpfstoß in zwei Durchgängen unter Verwendung des Laserhybridschweißens und des Unterpulverschweißens (UP) geschweißt werden. Das Laserhybridschweißen wird als Einschweißung mit einer Tiefe von ca. 25 mm ausgeführt. Die UP-Lagen werden auf der gegenüberliegenden Seite des Blechs aufgebracht. Bei richtiger Wahl der Schweißparameter wird der
Nahtquerschnitt durch eine sichere Überlappung beider Lagen geschlossen. Bei Blechdicken über 30 mm ist eine Kantenvorbereitung erforderlich, die eine Ausführung der UP-Fülllagen in Engspalttechnik ermöglicht. Die Vorteile der vorgeschlagenen Prozesskombination liegen darin, dass die Nahtwurzel der Laserhybridnaht nicht geformt werden muss. Defekte in der Wurzel der Laserhybrideinschweißung können durch die UP-Lagen effektiv beseitigt werden. Das Verfahren bietet eine hohe Stabilität des Schweißprozesses in Bezug auf die
Qualität der Blechkanten. Plasmageschnittene Kanten konnten ohne Bindefehler geschweißt werden. Die erreichte Nahtqualität wurde durch zerstörende und zerstörungsfreie Prüfungen bestätigt.
Die aus der Kirche in Greven entnommenen A. punctatum wiesen größere genetische Unterschiede auf als die aus der isolierten Zucht der BAM. Dies lässt vermuten, dass ein Austausch von zufliegenden oder eingeschleppten Individuen zu einer erhöhten genetischen Variabilität beiträgt.
Die Ergebnisse der Sequenzanalysen vom Standort Greven zeigten, dass vier Variationen vorhanden waren. Die DNA-Barcodes aus der Datenbank NCBI (Frankreich, Finnland und Deutschland) besaßen nur SNPs, die bereits aus den Insekten der Kirche in Greven bekannt waren. Nach aktueller Datenlage für den betrachteten Genabschnitt sind diese Varianten (V2 bis V22) als repräsentativ für den mitteleuropäischen Raum anzunehmen.
Potenzielle weitere Varianten lassen sich nur über eine größere Stichprobenanzahl entdecken/finden. Die Ergebnisse der Käferproben aus der isolierten Zucht der BAM sind deutlich homogener und entsprachen der Variante 1 aus Greven. Die Variante 1 wurde ebenfalls in vier französischen und einer deutschen Probe aus der NCBI-Datenbank nachgewiesen.
Die Ergebnisse deuten auf zwei Hauptvariationen (Vx und V20) hin, wobei die eine (VJ homogener als die andere (V20) zu sein scheint. Da für den Räuber K. caeruleus keine Unterschiede in der COI gefunden wurden, gilt zu prüfen, ob der gewählte Genabschnitt für die Untersuchung repräsentativ ist. Dies ist mit einer höheren Probenzahl zu validieren.
Sicherheitstechnische Untersuchungen von Wasserstoff Freistrahlflammen bei Hochdruck im Realmaßstab
(2024)
Wasserstoff als Energieträger gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung. Die Untersuchung von Störfallauswirkungen mit Wasserstoff rückt somit stärker in den Fokus. Da Wasserstoff meist unter Druck gelagert und transportiert wird, ist ein zu betrachtendes Szenario die Freisetzung aus einer Leckage mit anschließender Zündung. Die daraus resultierende Freistrahlflamme (Jet Flame) muss hinsichtlich der in die Umgebung emittierten Wärmestrahlung charakterisiert werden. In der Literatur existieren bereits verschiedene Modelle, welche jedoch vermehrt auf Daten aus Kohlenwasserstoffflammen mit geringem Impuls basieren. Zur Überprüfung dieser Modelle wird im Zuge des BAM internen H2 Jet Flame Projektes die sicherheitstechnische Untersuchung von impulsbehafteten Wasserstoff Freistrahlflammen vorgenommen. Hierfür finden Versuche im Realmaßstab auf dem Testgelände Technische Sicherheit der BAM (BAM-TTS) statt. Gegenstand der Untersuchungen ist die Beurteilung der Auswirkungen von realistischen Freisetzungsszenarien hinsichtlich der Flammengeometrie und der freigesetzten Wärmestrahlung. Dabei werden Parameter wie Freisetzungswinkel, Leckagedurchmesser (z.Zt. 1 mm bis 10 mm), Druck (z.Zt. bis max. 250 bar) und Massenstrom (bis max. 0,5 kg/s) variiert. Zusätzlich können auch Einflüsse wie Art der Zündung, Zündort sowie Zündung mit zeitlichem Verzug untersucht werden. Gewonnene Erkenntnisse werden mit den Ergebnissen bereits vorhandener Modelle verglichen und diese im Bedarfsfall weiterentwickelt. Insbesondere wird der Fokus auf die Modellierung der freigesetzten Wärmestrahlung von Wasserstoffflammen gelegt. Herausforderung dabei stellt die IR-Vermessung und Modellierung von Sichtmodellen der Flammen dar. Die Visualisierung der Flammengeometrie wird mit Hilfe mehrerer Infrarot Kamerasystemen (aus mindestens zwei Blickwinkeln) vorgenommen.
Bisherige Messungen, die in der Literatur zu finden sind, basieren meist auf instationären Auströmbedingungen. Der hier verwendete Versuchsaufbau ermöglicht ein stationäres Ausströmen für mehrere Minuten und somit eine direkte Vergleichbarkeit mit den existierenden (stationären) Modellen.
Weiterhin ist der Versuchsstand umrüstbar für Vergleichsmessungen mit Kohlenwasserstoffen (Methan etc.) sowie Mischungen aus Wasserstoff und Kohlenwasserstoffen.
In order to reduce the human footprint of CO2 emissions and limit global warming effects hydrogen combustion is becoming increasingly important. To enable fuel cells and gas turbines to operates this carbon free fuel, unprecedently large amounts of hydrogen need to be produced and safely transported and stored. The investigation of the effects of accidents involving hydrogen is therefore becoming of outmost importance. Since hydrogen is usually stored and transported under pressure, one scenario to be considered is the release of hydrogen from a leakage with subsequent ignition. The resulting jet flame must be characterized with respect to the thermal radiation emitted into the environment to define safety regulations. Various models that characterize the resulting flame shape and radiation already exist in the literature, but these are mainly based on empirical data from hydrocarbon jet flames.[1-4] To verify these models, a H2 Jet Flame project conducted at BAM, is investigating the safety of momentum driven hydrogen jet flames. For this purpose, large-scale tests are carried out at the Test Site Technical Safety (BAM-TTS). The object of the investigations is to assess the effects of real scale release scenarios regarding flame geometry and the thermal radiation emitted. Parameters such as release angle, leakage diameter (currently 1 mm to 10 mm), pressure (currently up to max. 250 bar) and mass flow (up to max. 0.5 kg/s) are varied. In addition, influences such as the type of ignition, ignition location as well as delayed ignition can also be investigated. The gained knowledge will be compared with existing jet flame models, to validate these and identify a possible need for further development. In particular, the focus will be laid on the thermal radiation of hydrogen flames. The challenge here is the visualization and characterization of the flame geometry in an open environment. Visualization is performed using infrared (IR) camera systems from at least two viewing angles. Measurements of the heat radiation of jet flames, which can be found in the literature, are mostly based on unsteady outflow conditions. The experimental setup used here allows for the generation of a steady-state outflow for several minutes and thus a direct comparability with existing (steady-state) models. Furthermore, the tests can be carried out for comparative measurements with hydrocarbons (methane, etc.) as well as mixtures of hydrogen and hydrocarbons.
Im Folgenden soll über aktuelle Diskussionen und Arbeitsschwerpunkte im Fachbeirat der BAM und von der Zulassungsstelle berichtet werden. Es werden Änderungen im Zusammenhang mit der Zulassungsrichtlinie für Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen vorgestellt. Es wird über die aktuelle Diskussion über die Anforderungen z. B. an metallische Sensoren für Dichtungskontrollsysteme berichtet. Änderungen der Fremdprüfung von sogenannten Sandschutzmatten, des Standards zur Qualitätsüberwachung (SQÜ) von Kunststoff Dränelementen (KDE) und der Anpassung der Formulierungen zum Überbau der in Abdichtungen verwendeten Produkte werden aufgezeigt.
Infrared thermography using a focused (spot or line) beam has proved to be effective for detection of surface breaking cracks on planar samples. In this work, we use the same principle, but applied to complex shaped components, like a rail section, a gear, and a gas turbine blade. We use a six-axis robot arm to move the sample in front of our thermographic setup. Several scanning paths and thermographic parameters are explored: scanning speed, density of points in each scanning slice, laser power and camera frame-rate. Additionally, we explore semi-automatic evaluation algorithms for crack detection, as well as 2D-to-3D registration of the found indications.
Die Umweltwirkungen auf ein Material werden als Überlapp der Funktionskurven von Materialempfindlichkeit und einwirkenden Umweltparametern betrachtet. Wenn entweder die Empfindlichkeit oder die Beanspruchungen Null sind, ergibt sich auch keine Umweltwirkung und bei beidseitig Werten größer Null das jeweilige Produkt der beiden. Die Akkumulation der nicht-reversiblen Effekte über die Zeit und allen Eigenschaftsänderungen entspricht der Alterung des Materials für den jeweiligen Expositionszeitraum.
Die digitale Umweltsimulation gliedert sich hier in drei Teilaspekte. Ein erster, rein materialwissenschaftlicher Teil hat die Aufgabe, alle relevanten Materialempfindlichkeiten experimentell zu quantifizieren. Ein zweiter – unter Umständen numerischer Teil – hat die Aufgabe, das Bauteil und seine Einbaulage zu digitalisieren und aus den makroskopischen Umgebungsbedingungen die relevanten mikroklimatischen Umweltparameter für alle Oberflächen- oder Volumenelemente zu bestimmen. In einem dritten Teil werden die Einwirkungen über den betrachteten Zeitraum berechnet und kumuliert. Dieses Konzept, das auf den so genannten Expositions-Reaktions-Funktionen (ERF) basiert, wird an Beispielen der Photoxidation erläutert. Dieses Vorgehen wurde schon beim ViPQuali-Projekt als Numerische Umweltsimulation umgesetzt.
Überprüft werden muss das Modell unbedingt an einer realitätsnahen Validierungsbeanspruchung. Hier werden die ermittelten ERFs mit über den kompletten Beanspruchungszeitraum geloggten Umweltparametern gekoppelt, um die berechnete mit der experimentell erfahrenen Alterungswirkung zu vergleichen. Nur so kann sichergestellt sein, dass alle für die Anwendungsumgebung relevanten Materialempfindlichkeiten einbezogen wurden.
For structural health monitoring systems or non-destructive testing, it is crucial to study the interactions of ultrasonic-guided waves with inhomogeneities or damage in structural components. Simulation of these interactions poses a challenge.
After the wave-damage interaction, the numerical model must reproduce features like mode conversion or wave scattering. Mathematically, damages are discontinuities in a computational domain, and each wave interacts differently because of the geometrical features. We propose a quadtree-based meshing in the current contribution to capture these geometrical characteristics.
This kind of discretisation approach requires special techniques to couple cells of different sizes since, after a quadtree decomposition, the problem of so-called hanging nodes may arise. Transition elements based on high-order transfinite shape functions are used to solve this issue. The advantage is that these elements allow the correct coupling of the cells while retaining a high-order interpolation. Moreover, the reuse of the dynamic stiffness matrices can be exploited based on the similarity of the cells. This procedure makes the approach very efficient.
Examples show the scattering characteristics of different guided wave modes after interacting with inhomogeneities and discontinuities in a plate.
The publication is an extended abstract on the modelling of the manufacturing process related residual stresses in type 4 pressure vessels for hydrogen storage. A 2D analytical model based on the classical laminate theory and a 3D finite element model are introduced. The calculated residual stress state after the filament winding process as well as the stress state in service are presented and discussed.
Since 2016 ISO Technical Committee (TC) 265 is working on standardization the whole CCS-process chain. Around 30 countries are working together to provide international guidelines. As ISO 27913 was the first standard finished within these activities it is already in the stage of first revision.
The objective of ISO 27913 is “to provide specific requirements and recommendations on certain aspects of safe and reliable design, construction and operation of pipelines intended for the large-scale transportation of CO2 that are not already covered in existing pipeline standards such as ISO 13623, ASME B31.8, EN 1594, AS 2885 or other standards. Existing pipeline standards cover many of the issues related to the design and construction of CO2 pipelines; however, there are some CO2 specific issues that are not adequately covered in these standards. The purpose of this document is to cover these issues consistently. Hence, this document is not a standalone standard, but is written to be a supplement to other existing pipeline standards for natural gas or liquids for both onshore and offshore pipelines.”
This contribution shall provide information on the content, the current stage of the revision process, encourage to contribute to this standard and make listeners aware to consider the influence of ISO standard on documents currently in draft.
The structural integrity of outer reinforced concrete (RC) containments of nuclear power plants provides an essential shield against external hazards. If this containment is damaged by an impact event, such as an aircraft crash, the question arises to which degree the reinforced concrete containment still has its protective capability. This concerns both purely structural protection and protection against liquids penetrating the interior of the containment. Due to the dimensions of the containment structures, it is difficult to perform real scale impact experiments, so in the past decades plate geometries at medium scale have been used for investigations. Detailed investigations on the structural behaviour of RC members or RC plates subjected to impact loading have already been presented in Just et al., Hering, Hering et al., Bracklow et al., Hille et al. and Nerger et al.
The following investigations deal with the single and multiple impact event (first hard impact and/or subsequent soft impact) on a RC specimen, which provides the basis for further investigations. A description of the test setup and the test procedure as well as a presentation of the test results from the impact tests are provided.
Furthermore, the experimental program is presented, which the damaged RC specimens are to undergo to deal with the question of how much the impact-damaged RC structure has become permeable to liquid media, such as water and kerosene, depending on the intensity of the impact. The aim of these following investigations is to develop a test setup that can be applied to investigate the liquid penetration behaviour (LPB) of small, medium, and large-scale RC members.
In addition to the liquid penetration experiments, the damaged specimens are to be examined by planar tomography to obtain the damage inside the specimen. The combination of damaging event, fluid penetration behaviour and tomography should enable a comprehensive understanding of the damage to the RC specimen.
Mit der Abkehr von der Nutzung fossiler Rohstoffe rücken regenerative Energieträger immer weiter in den Focus. Neben klassischen Holzkohlen werden verstärkt so genannte Biokohlen produziert. Dieser Begriff findet Verwendung für mit Hilfe verschiedener Verfahren karbonisierte pflanzliche, tierische oder mikrobielle Ausgangsstoffe. Diese Kohlen werden zum Teil über weite Strecken zum Bestimmungsort transportiert (Überseetransporte) oder vor Verwendung für längere Zeit gelagert.
Häufig zeigen diese Kohlen ein kritisches Selbstentzündungsverhalten, wobei Einstufungstests (UN N.4 Test) versagen können. Ein negatives Testergebnis des UN N.4 Tests führte dabei in der Vergangenheit zur Nichteinstufung als selbsterhitzungsfähiger Stoff; in der Praxis entzündeten sich aber bereits vergleichsweise kleine Schüttungen (einige m³), z. B. beim Seetransport in Containern. Der Artikel geht auf dieses Problem ein und stellt Prüfverfahren vor. Aus den Ergebnissen durchgeführter Untersuchungen werden Empfehlungen für sicheren Transport und Lagerung abgeleitet.
In einer Versuchsreihe im Realmaßstab wurden drei Flüssigwasserstofftanks (LH2) unterfeuert. Hierbei sollte unter anderem geklärt werden, ob es, analog zu druckverflüssigten Gasen, zu einem BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Cloud Explosion) kommen kann. Die Experimente wurden auf dem Testareal Wasserstoffsicherheit des Testgeländes Technische Sicherheit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM-TTS) im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation zwischen der BAM und Gexcon, als Teil des SH2IFT-Programms durchgeführt. Es handelte sich um doppelwandige, vakuumisolierte Tanks von 1 m³ Volumen. Die zylindrischen Tanks unterschieden sich durch ihre Ausrichtung (horizontal oder vertikal) und das verwendete Isoliermaterial (Perlit oder Mehrschichtisolierung (MLI). Der Füllgrad der Tanks betrug bei jedem der durchgeführten Tests etwa 35-40 %. Die Brandlast wurde homogen durch ein propangasbetriebenes Brennersystem erzeugt. Gemessen wurden die Bedingungen im Behälter (Temperaturen und Druck) sowie äußere Randbedingungen und Auswirkungen beim Versagen (Wärmestrahlung, Druckwellen, Flammenballentwicklung und Fragmentierung). Mit Bolometern wurde die Wärmestrahlung gemessen, die sowohl durch das Propanfeuer als auch durch einen möglichen Feuerball/BLEVE erzeugt wurde. Zur Messung der durch das Bersten von Behältern/BLEVEs erzeugten Druckwellen wurden sog. Pencil-Probes verwendet. Des Weiteren wurden mehrere Kameras zur Überwachung der Experimente eingesetzt: Normalbildkameras, Infrarot (IR)-Kameras und Hochgeschwindigkeitskameras, sowohl bodengestützt als auch mittels einer Drohne. Zwei der untersuchten Tanks, ein horizontaler und der vertikale, die beide mit Perlit isoliert waren, hielten der Brandbelastung stand, ohne dass es zu einem Behälterversagen kam. Der mit MLI isolierte horizontale Behälter barst nach 1 Stunde und 6 Minuten und erzeugte dabei einen Feuerball, Trümmerflug und eine Druckwelle. Neben der Beschreibung der Auswirkungen eines kritischen Versagens eines LH2-Tanks sind weitere Ziele der Arbeit die Identifizierung kritischer Behälterzustände sowie die Erstellung eines umfassendes Datensatzes der Trümmer des geborstenen Tanks. Die größten Abstände für kritische Abstände ergaben sich durch Fragmentwurf. Hier sollen 3D-Scans für die Verwendung in CAD und FEM Anwendungen bereitgestellt werden. Umfassende Daten zu den Fragmentwurfweiten, -massen und -positionen wurden bereits publiziert. Damit soll die Voraussetzung geschaffen werden, um vorhandene Wurfweitenmodelle, die bisher nur für einschalige Behälter konzipiert wurden auf ihre Eignung für mehrschalige Behälter zu überprüfen oder mögliche Anpassungen anhand der realen Daten vornehmen zu können.
Zudem wurde damit begonnen die nicht geborstenen Tanks zu vermessen und zu zerlegen, um u.a. die Perlit-Schüttung auf Beeinträchtigungen durch den Transport und die Unterfeuerung zu untersuchen.
In einer Reihe von Experimenten wurden die möglichen Folgen der Freisetzung von verflüssigtem Wasserstoff (LH2) auf, bzw. unter Wasser untersucht. Die Experimente zielten darauf ab, eine unbeabsichtigte Freisetzung von LH2 (z.B. durch Schlauchabriss) insbesondere bei der Betankung eines Schiffes zu simulieren. Für verflüssigtes Erdgas (LNG) wurden dabei sog. RPT’s (rapid phase transition) nachgewiesen, bei denen die spontane Verdampfung relevante Druckwellen erzeugt. Es kann nicht ausgeschlossen werden, dass RPTs auch im Falle von LH2 möglich sind. Die Versuche wurden auf dem Testareal Wasserstoffsicherheit auf dem Testgelände Technische Sicherheit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM-TTS) in Horstwalde, im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation zwischen der BAM und Gexcon im Rahmen des SH2IFT-Programms durchgeführt. Die LH2-Freisetzungen erfolgten direkt aus einem LH2-Tanklastwagen über eine lange, flexible, vakuumisolierte Transferleitung. Während die Freisetzung oberhalb und unterhalb der Wasseroberfläche jeweils vertikal orientiert war, wurde bei der Unterwasserfreisetzung zusätzlich eine horizontale Ausströmung, parallel zur Wasseroberfläche realisiert. Zur Bestimmung des Massenstromes, wurde ein Wägesystem unter dem Tankwagen eingesetzt. Spezielle Drucksensoren wurden verwendet, um die durch die Freisetzungsvorgänge erzeugten Stoßwellen sowohl im Wasser als auch in der Luft zu messen. Die Gaskonzentrationen über dem Wasserbecken wurden an verschiedenen Positionen gemessen. Hochgeschwindigkeits-, Infrarot- (IR) und normale Kameras wurden eingesetzt, um die Phänomenologie der Freisetzung aufzuzeichnen und das Verhalten der Gaswolke im Zeitverlauf zu verfolgen. Neben den fest installierten Systemen an Land, kamen auch Unterwasserkameras sowie eine Drohne mit Normal- und IR-Kameras zum Einsatz.
Zwei Wetterstationen wurden zur Messung von Windgeschwindigkeit, Windrichtung, Temperatur und Luftfeuchtigkeit während aller durchgeführten Tests eingesetzt. Des Weiteren kamen Bolometer zur Wärmestrahlungsmessung zum Einsatz. Zwar führten die Freisetzung zu einer hochturbulenten LH2/Wasser Mischzone, jedoch zu keinen nennenswerten Überdrücken durch RPT. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde unerwartet, aber reproduzierbar, eine Zündung der Gaswolke in freier Luft in einiger Entfernung von den Instrumenten und dem Ort der Freisetzung beobachtet. Die daraus resultierenden Gaswolkenexplosionen führten zu relevanten Überdrücken und zur Wärmeabstrahlung in die Umgebung.
Evaluation of Heat Fluxes in Fire Reference Test Conducted in BAM Propane Gas Fire Test Facility
(2024)
Packages for the transport of intermediate- and high-level radioactive waste are designed to withstand severe accidents. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has established specific mechanical and thermal tests. Packages for the transport of radioactive material must withstand these tests to comply with the Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials IAEA [IAEA (2018)]. A fire reference package was developed with the primary objective to demonstrate that the fire meets the regulatory requirements. Another aim is to characterise the boundary conditions of the actual fire as input parameters for thermo-mechanical simulations. A simple method to characterise the boundary conditions of a real steady state fire with a fire reference package is presented. The thermal test mainly consists of a 30 minute fully engulfing 800°C pool fire or an equally severe fire, such as a propane gas fire. The fire reference tests are performed prior to the actual fire test with the real package. The heat fluxes into the package depend substantially on the fire characteristics and the surface temperature of the package. To investigate local and overall heat fluxes over a wide range of surface temperatures in this test facility a fire reference package was designed for repeated use. The fire reference package presented in this paper represents the outer geometry of a small transport container for radioactive material and is used as a device in civil engineering. It is designed as a closed steel sheet cylinder with a wall thickness of 10 mm, a length of 182 mm and a diameter of 102 mm. The package was instrumented with thermocouples and filled with heat resistant insulation material. Open-air fire tests were performed in a BAM propane gas fire test facility with the fire reference package. The measured temperatures are used to determine the changes of heat fluxes into the fire reference package in relation to the package surface temperature. The calculated heat fluxes allow its fitting to express the thermal exposure as simple mathematical boundary condition. Therefore, in a first approach, fire properties such as adiabatic surface temperature (AST) as proposed by Wickström et al. (2007), convection coefficient and emissivity are determined mathematically fitting the heat flux development presented in this paper. The evaluated results provide an initial picture of local fire characteristics of the conducted propane gas fire and are a further development of previous works from Feldkamp et al. (2020). The results can be used in thermal and thermo-mechanical models to simulate the load on the real transport package in fire. The test shows that the examined propane gas fire covers the IAEA-fire over a wide range of surface temperatures with the chosen test stand parameters.
Mechanical stress often accelerates the failure of polymer materials. The aim of this research is to study the interaction between the sealing material FKM and biofuels B10 (heating oil with 10% biodiesel). The mechanical stress test was carried out in a special apparatus. Both mechanical and non-mechanical stress tests were conducted on specimens at 20, 40, and 70 °C for 28 days to document changes in mass, volume, and tensile properties. Both increasing temperature and mechanical stress have a significant effect on the tensile strength of the FKM polymer when exposed to B10. The combination of increasing temperature and mechanical stress induced rupture within 2 h. It was also established that FKM polymer with pre-exposure in B10 survived longer during mechanical stress compared to specimens exposed only to air. With the support of infrared (IR) spectroscopy, we were able to confirm the penetration of B10 into the FKM polymer.
Portland cement is one of the principal sources of anthropomorphic CO2 emissions. It is estimated that cement production contributes up to 10% of greenhouse gas emissions and annual cement production over 4 billion tons. This has led to the development of a range of alkali activated materials (AAM), the most common precursor materials being class F fly ash and blast furnace slag. At present Class C Fly Ash is not widely utilized as an AAM due to the chemical composition and activation requirements. However, initial research on high Calcium German Class C Fly Ash suggests that the material may have potential for application as an AAM. This paper reports the development of ambient cured alkali activated mortar optimised by varying the alkali modulus and w/b ratio. The evolution of the mechanical and microstructural properties is reported over the initial 28 day period. Compressive strength in excess of 10 MPa at 7 days and 15 MPa at 28 days was achieved at ambient temperature. Similar strengths were observed for both 10% and 15% dosage but as dosage increases the optimal Alkali Modulus reduces.
Water management in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) is critical for efficient operation. However, in-situ measurements of the water distribution in an operating PEMFC are challenging. In this study, we investigate key aspects of ultrasonic guided wave (UGW) propagation through the bipolar plate of a PEMFC using 3D scanning laser Doppler vibrometry (3D LDV). Our results provide insights for the design and optimization of UGW-based sensor systems for water detection in PEMFCs.
Im laufenden Verbundprojekt MCGUSS untersuchen dieProjektpartner MPA Stuttgart und BAM Berlin das probabilistische Master Curve (MC) Konzept nach ASTM E1921 hinsichtlich seiner Übertragbarkeit auf ferritisches Gusseisen mit Kugelgraphit (DCI).
Ziel des Projektes ist die Entwicklung einer Methode zur Bestimmung und Bewertung der dynamischen Bruchzähigkeit von DCI im Übergangsbereich. In diesem Beitrag werden die Eigenschaften des verwendeten Werkstoffs der Festigkeitsklasse GJS-400 vorgestellt und die sich daraus ergebenden Probenentnahmestellen näher erläutert.
Weiterhin werden erste Ergebnisse der C(T)25-Versuchsserien vorgestellt, die bei Belastungsraten von ca. 5∙103 MPa√ms-1, 5∙104 MPa√ms-1 und 5∙105 MPa√ms-1 und einer Temperatur von -40 °C durchgeführt wurden.
In einem laufenden Kooperationsprojekt zwischen der BAM Berlin und der MPA Stuttgart wird das probabilistische Master Curve (MC) Konzept nach ASTM E1921 hinsichtlich seiner Übertragbarkeit auf ferritisches Gusseisen mit Kugelgraphit (DCI) untersucht.
Zielsetzung ist die Bereitstellung einer Vorgehensweise zur Bestimmung und Bewertung der dynamischen Bruchzähigkeit von DCI im Übergangsbereich. In diesem Beitrag wird der Versuchswerkstoff der Festigkeitsklasse GJS-400 näher vorgestellt.
Ferner werden erste Ergebnisse von zwei bruchmechanischen Versuchsserien an SE(B)140-Großproben bei Belastungsraten von ca. 6∙104 MPa√ms-1 bei -40 °C und -60 °C präsentiert.
Large-scale experiments have been performed to investigate the possible consequences of realistic amounts of liquified hydrogen (LH2) encountering water. The experiments aimed at simulating an accidental release of LH2 during especially the fuelling of a ship. For liquified natural gas (LNG) it has been demonstrated that when spilled onto water the evaporation rate can be that high that physical explosions occur which are referred as rapid phase transitions (RPTs). It cannot be excluded that RPTs are also possible in the case of LH2. The tests were performed in a 10 m x 10 m x 1.5 m basin filled with water, at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Horstwalde, Germany within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of
the SH2IFT program. LH2 releases were established releasing directly from a trailer carrying LH2 through a long flexible double vacuum insulated transfer line. The releases occurred from a height of 50 cm above and 30 cm under the water surface both pointing downwards and 30 cm under the water surface pointing along the water surface too. The release rate was determined based on the weight loss rate of the road tanker which was placed onto load cells. Special blast pressure sensors were used to measure the shock waves generated by the release processes both in the water and in the air. At several locations the gas concentration was measured. Heat radiation was measured at 3 distances from the point of release. High speed,
Infrared (IR) and normal cameras were used to record events and to follow the gas cloud behaviour in time. This includes cameras mounted on a UAV and underwater cameras. Two weather stations were used to measure wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity during all tests performed. All investigated release configurations resulted in a very chaotic LH2-water mixing zone, causing considerable evaporation but only minor over pressures.
The main phenomenon observed was an ignition of the released gas cloud, resulting in significant blast wave overpressures and heat radiation to the surroundings. The location of the ignition occurred in free air at some distance from the instrumentation and release location.
Large Scale Experiments have been performed to determine whether a storage vessel containing liquid hydrogen (LH2) and caught in a fire engulfing the vessel can result in a BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) and if so its consequences. The tests were performed at the Test Site Technical Safety of the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) in Germany at the Hydrogen Test Area (H2TA) within a research cooperation between BAM and Gexcon as part of the SH2IFT program. Three tests were performed using double-walled vacuum insulated vessels of 1 m3 volume. The cylindrical Vessels differed in orientation (horizontal or vertical) and the insulation material used (perlite or multi-layer insulation (MLI)). The degree of filling of the vessels was approximately 35-40 % in each of the tests performed. The fire load was provided by a propane fed burner-system positioned under the storage vessel and designed to give a homogeneous fire load. The conditions in the vessel (temperatures and pressure) as well as external effects (heat radiation, blast waves, flame ball development and fragmentation) were measured. All vessels were equipped with K-type thermocouples at several locations at the inner and outer vessel shell. The pressure inside the inner vessel and in the space between the inner and outer vessels (vacuum pressure) was measured. Bolometers were used to measure the heat radiation generated by both the propane fire and that generated by a possible fireball/BLEVE. To measure blast generated by the vessel burst/BLEVEs blast pencils were positioned at up to three locations. Further several cameras were used to monitor the events: normal cameras, infrared (IR)-cameras, high-speed cameras also on board of an UAV. Two of these vessels, a horizontal and a vertical vessel both insulated with perlite withstood the fire loading for 1 hour 20 minutes and 4 hours respectively without catastrophic failure. A horizontal vessel insulated with MLI failed by bursting after 1 hour and 6 minutes resulting in a fireball, fragments, and blast wave.
The safety demonstration of heavy weight type B transport packages used for storing spent nuclear fuel (SNF) or radioactive waste is ensured by a combination of physical testing and numerical calculations. While experiments are performed in accordance with the IAEA regulations for selected drop scenarios, Finite-Element-Method (FEM) simulations are used to predict the most damaging case and to investigate additional drop positions. BAM as competent authority in Germany has performed different investigations of a welding seam for a typical large transport package made of A508 forged steel, where the bottom plate is welded to the cylindrical shell. The package has a mass of approx. 120 t. Results of physical drop tests with a full-scale model and accompanying preliminary FEM simulations are presented to determine the decisive stresses in the welding seam. A drop test only represents one set of a package and test parameters. A further parameter analysis is considered to account for allowable variations of packaging properties (e.g. resulting from the manufacturing process) and, based on IAEA requirements, the temperature dependence of the material behaviour. The results of the stress analyses from the drop test and the simulation form the basis and provide the input parameters for a fracture mechanics analysis. In addition to the IAEA specifications, further standards are taken into account for an in-depth investigation, see R6 [1], BS 7910 [2] and API 579-1/ASME FFS1 [3]. All the above-mentioned standards require a manufacturer-specific defect analysis with respect to size and position. Both result from the welding process and the following heat treatment regime. The maximum defect sizes are ensured with non-destructive test methods (such as ultrasonic or particle methods) as integral part of the manufacturing process of the welding seam. Another important parameter in the welding process is the residual stress (secondary stress). The combination of the primary and secondary stress determines the total stress in the welding seam. The most damaging case of the welding seam is determined and evaluated with help of the abovementioned standards and taking into account the IAEA requirements with respect to defect sizes, material properties, primary and residual stress, yield strength etc.
Mikrolegierungselemente, wie Nb und Ti, sind für die signifikante Festigkeitssteigerung von vergüteten, hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen mit einer Nominalstreckgrenze ≥ 690 MPa unerlässlich. Normvorgaben zur chemischen Zusammensetzung geben dabei nur obere Grenzwerte für die Hersteller vor. Weiterhin wirken sich bereits kleine Abweichungen in der Legierungsroute teilweise drastisch auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften aus. Somit wird eine adäquate Vorhersage der Schweißeignung und der Integrität der Schweißverbindung aufgrund der variierenden Mikrogefüge erschwert bis unmöglich. Unerwünschte Nebeneffekte sind die mögliche Erweichung der Wärmeeinflusszone (WEZ) als auch der gegenteilige Effekt der Aufhärtung. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden erstmals systematisch die unterschiedlichen Mikrolegierungsrouten mit variierenden Ti und Nb-Gehalten an Versuchsschmelzen untersucht. Die Stahlgüte S690QL bildet dabei die Grundlage der chemischen Zusammensetzung sowie der entsprechenden Wärmebehandlung. Zur Untersuchung der jeweiligen Schweißeignung wurden Dreilagen-Schweißungen mittels moderner MAG-Hochleistungsschweißprozesse durchgeführt und kritische Gefügebereiche mit hoher Erweichung/Aufhärtung identifiziert. Der Fokus der analytischen Betrachtungen lag hier auf der Identifikation der Phasenumwandlungen beim Abkühlen und auf dem metallurgischen Ausscheidungsverhalten. Zusätzlich wurden isotherme und nicht-isotherme Phasenberechnungen mit der Software Thermo-Calc durchgeführt. Mechanisch-technologische Untersuchungen zur Kerbschlagzähigkeit mittels Kerbschlagbiegeversuchen durchgeführt wurden, bestätigen dabei die Ergebnisse der thermodynamischen Simulation bezüglich des Ausscheidungsverhaltens während der Temperatur-Zeit Schweißzyklen. Daraus lässt sich der Einfluss der Wärmeeinwirkung beim Schweißen auf die Gefügeausbildung in der WEZ und der korrespondierenden mechanischen Eigenschaften qualitativ beschreiben.
A semi-automatic thermographic procedure for the assessment of the welded area of resistance projection welded joints has been developed. Currently, to assess the quality of RPW joints destructive tests are used and the more commonly used non-destructive technique is the ultrasonic one. The possibility for a quantitative evaluation of the welded area by thermographic technique has been proved by means of an innovative procedure applied on steel RPW joints with ‘as it’ surface conditions. Measurements obtained by thermography and ultrasound have been compared, to verify the developed procedure.
Experimental and numerical investigation of prestressed bolt connections under lateral displacements
(2022)
The containment system of transport packages for spent nuclear fuel and high-level waste usually includes bolted lids with metal gaskets. The packages are assessed to specific transport conditions which are specified in the IAEA safety standards SSR-6 (IAEA 2018). These transport conditions, especially the so-called accident conditions of transport, imply high dynamic loading on the lids and the bolt connections of the package. The response of the lid systems on the mechanical accident conditions is generally investigated by experimental drop tests or numerically, e.g., by finite element analyses. The interpretation of the drop test results for the verification of the numerical models is often not obvious due to the complex superposition of different effects in the real tests. BAM has started a research project to get a better understanding about the behavior of prestressed bolt connections under loadings typical for these drop tests. In this context an experimental test set-up was developed to investigate the response of a single bolt connection under a prescribed lateral displacement of clamped parts. The bolt is instrumented by strain gauges to get the pretensional, the torsional and the bending stress in the bolt shank. Furthermore, the lateral movement and the tilt of the bolt head is measured during the test. A finite element model of the test set-up has been created in Abaqus FEA (Simulia 2021). The very detailed instrumentation of the test set-up shall give the opportunity to investigate and validate the numerical model. The aim of this paper is to give an overview about the proposed research project and to present first results.
The development of a Lab-on-a-Chip (LoC) is presented, which can detect reactive phosphorous compounds in the gas phase in combination with an optochemical hand-held sensor. The LoC prototype contains three pairs of sensing materials containing fluorescent indicator dyes in various carrier materials. By measuring the fluorescence response to phosphoryl chloride, a surrogate compound, the detection of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) in gas phase becomes possible within seconds, introducing a novel approach to CWA detection.
Der Modifizierte Varestraint-Transvarestraint-Test wird an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung als Variante des Varestraint-Tests verwendet. Die Auswertung dieser Tests findet klassisch durch Abmessungen der entstandenen Risse unter dem Lichtmikroskop statt. Eine solche Auswertung ist aufwendig und fehleranfällig. Convolutional Neural Networks können trainiert werden, um die Risse auf digitalen Bildern zu segmentieren, wodurch der menschliche Fehler in der Auswertung eliminiert werden kann. Die Ergebnisse können durch Overlay mit den Originalbildern verglichen werden.
The European Commission adopted an EU
Energy Label for smartphones and tablets in June 2023. For the
first time, the EU Energy Label will depict, among energy
efficiency, also a reparability score, battery endurance, battery
lifetime, drop resistance and dust and water ingress protection.
However, does the multitude of parameters bear the risk to
confuse consumers instead of triggering environmentally
sustainable purchase decisions? In a survey in Germany,
consumers were asked to make a choice when the label does not
clearly identify the environmentally better product. Instead,
energy efficiency has to be valued against reparability,
reliability against energy efficiency, and reparability against
reliability. The sustainability lever of the different aspects is not
the same, as e.g. lifetime extension has a much more positive
environmental impact than energy efficiency in case of mobile
devices. Therefore, the question remains, whether consumers
intuitively make the right choice. Results of the survey indicate
that consumers interpret the complex label in the desired
manner and value those aspects higher, which indeed have a
more positive effect on the environment.
Experimental Setup for the Reproducible Generation of Pressure Waves in Free Field Conditions
(2023)
The injuries caused by the primary blast are still poorly understood, especially in the torso region. To generate sufficiently large data sets, shock tubes are often used. However, these have some limitations, such as blockage, use of the exit jet, widening cross-sections, and scaling problems with respect to compressive strength and test objects. Therefore, it is appropriate to conduct experiments under free-field conditions, but tests with real explosives are often associated with long preparation and setup times as well as high safety requirements.
Therefore, this paper presents an experimental setup for the reproducible generation of blast waves under free-field conditions. This experimental setup aims to provide a test environment for a sufficiently large specimen to investigate the behaviour of the shock wave within the specimen, especially at the media interfaces. As an example of application, the influence of the primary explosive effect on protective equipment or on tissue simulants for the investigation of blast injuries can be mentioned. An autoclave is used as a shock wave generator. It has a volume of 0.065 m3 and is filled with a stoichiometric acetylene-oxygen gas mixture. The setup and turnaround time is approximately 30 minutes. The following factors have been selected as target variables for the optimization of the shock wave generator: reproducibility of the pressure wave, use-case-relevant positive phase duration and peak overpressure, a pressure curve characteristic corresponding to that of a military explosive under undisturbed free field conditions, and short setup times of the experimental setup. For this purpose, the experimental setup is presented in this paper. Several series of measurements are presented, showing the characteristics of the generated pressure wave. For the generated pressure wave, the classical pressure curve characteristics can be clearly recognized. A peak pressure of 92 kPa is reached at a distance of 1 m from the opening, and the first positive pressure phase lasts 1.17 ms. Furthermore, the pressure wave propagates in a hemispherical shape. The typical characteristics of the blast wave generated by the SWG have been demonstrated using the military explosive PETN. It is shown that the actual load case corresponds to about 70 g of PETN.
Within fracture mechanics safety assessment for steels in nuclear technology, the probabilistic master curve (MC) concept according to ASTM E1921 is currently used for quasi-static loading conditions as a supplement to the established deterministic ASME reference curve concept. However, for ductile cast iron (DCI), a systematic review of potential modifications to the assumptions and the procedure according to ASTM E1921 and an associated validation are still lacking. For this reason, the application of the fracture mechanics MC concept to ferritic ductile cast iron is being investigated in a joint research project between MPA Stuttgart and BAM Berlin. According to Hojo et al. (2008) the MC concept is already in use for the brittle fracture safety assessment of ferritic forged steel containers, which would suggest an extension to ductile cast iron containers. In compliance with IAEA SSG-26, the safety assessment of DCI containers for transport as well as storage of radioactive materials is based on the fracture mechanics criterion of general exclusion of crack initiation. Within this context, the focus of the current research project is on the further development of brittle fracture safety assessment methods. Therefore, a methodology shall be established to determine and assess dynamic fracture toughness values of DCI in the ductile-to-brittle transition regime, using only a low number of small fracture mechanics test specimens extracted from a component. For the experimental program, a DCI material of grade GJS-400 (GGG-40) has been produced as it is generally used for transport and storage containers for nuclear material. A basic mechanical-technological material characterization consisting of tensile, Charpy, and Pellini tests has been planned and a comprehensive fracture mechanics test program was compiled covering dynamic testing of DC(T)9, C(T)25, C(T)50, SE(B)10, SE(B)25, and SE(B)140 specimens at various loading rates and temperatures. The specimen testing is divided between the project partners based on specimen geometry. MPA Stuttgart has been tasked with the testing of the C(T), DC(T) and Pellini specimens, while BAM Berlin was assigned the SE(B), Charpy and tensile tests. These tests allow for the determination of the loading rate relevant for brittle fracture via C(T)25 specimens and an assessment of size effects by transferring the relevant loading rate to other specimen geometries and sizes. Numerical analyses of different specimen geometries and test setups are planned to investigate the influence of stress triaxiality and loading rate. Furthermore, the time-dependent course of the Weibull stress is assessed via these numerical analyses. Throughout the experimental program, the microstructure-property relationship will also be investigated based on quantitative metallographic and fractographic analyses like scanning electron microscope images and metallographic sections. With the acquired experimental database fundamental assumptions of the MC concept, like the weakest link model and the Weibull distribution, will be assessed for the application to DCI. In the end, the applicability of the MC concept will be evaluated and if necessary, modifications to the MC concept for DCI will be proposed. This paper will present the preliminary results of the GJS400 material characterization and the related selection of test specimen extraction points. First results of the C(T)25 and SE(B)140 specimen testing will also be discussed supported by first metallographic analyses.
Intermetallische Werkstoffe werden für Hochtemperaturanwendungen immer wichtiger. Insbesondere Aluminide mit hohen spezifischen Festigkeiten haben ein großes Potenzial für Leichtbauanwendungen, z. B. werden Titanaluminide bereits in Flugzeugturbinen eingesetzt. Ökonomische und ökologische Aspekte sind die treibende Kraft zur Substitution konventioneller Legierungen, z. B. Nickelbasislegierungen, die eine wesentlich höhere Kostenintensität und ein höheres Gewichts-Festigkeits-Verhältnis aufweisen. Insbesondere Eisenaluminide (FeAl) sind aufgrund guter mechanischer Eigenschaften und der guten Verfügbarkeit der wichtigsten Hauptlegierungselemente attraktiv. Speziell entwickelte FeAl-Legierungskonzepte ermöglichen eine wirtschaftliche Produktion im Kokillenguss, bei der die Erstarrung der Schmelze spezielle komplexe Gefüge ermöglicht, um die hohen thermischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften durch eine hohe Anzahl von harten Ausscheidungen entlang der Korngrenzen zu erreichen. Zu diesen Eigenschaften gehört aber auch, dass notwendige Bearbeitungsschritte, wie das Schlichtfräsen, zur Erzielung komplexer Endkonturen, zu vorzeitigem Werkzeugverschleiß und geringen Oberflächengüten führen. Für das finale FeAl-Bauteil ist eine hohe Oberflächenintegrität insbesondere in sicherheitsrelevanten Anwendungen in der Luftfahrt oder im Energiebereich erforderlich. Aus diesem Grund konzentriert sich die vorliegende Untersuchung auf die Mechanismen und die Minimierung des Werkzeugverschleißes und die Auswirkungen auf die Oberfläche eines in Kokille vergossenen FeAl-Bauteils. Neben den Optimierungen des Fräsprozesses und der Werkzeugparameter (Geometrie, Material) wird ein modernes hybrides Bearbeitungsverfahren, das ultra-schallunterstützte Fräsen (USAM), eingesetzt, bei dem eine Überlagerung mit einer hochfrequenten Schwingung des rotierenden Werkzeugs erzeugt wird. Analysen der Kräfte und Temperaturen im Fräsprozess, der Verschleißerscheinungen am Werkzeug und der Oberflächenintegrität zeigen positive Auswirkungen durch USAM. Darüber hinaus wird eine valide Grundlage für die Optimierung des Werkzeugs und des Fräsprozesses geschaffen, um eine hohe Oberflächenintegrität (z. B. Verringerung von Zugeigenspannungen und Defekten) und eine längere Werkzeuglebensdauer zu gewährleisten, die zukünftig eine wirtschaftliche Herstellung von FeAl-Bauteilen ermöglicht.
To evaluate the durability of new alternative cement compositions, it is important to examine the internal transport of moisture through these materials. For this purpose, mortars were prepared from different types of cement and capillary suction experiments were carried out. The moisture transport was studied with an NMR tomograph and compared with weight measurements. With the tomograph, the total moisture input could be determined, as well as the moisture content within the samples non-destructively and spatially resolved. This allows precise observation of the moisture fronts. The tomograph was also used to determine the capillary transport coefficient.
Hochfeste Feinkornbaustähle verfügen über großes Potenzial für gewichtsoptimierte, effiziente Strukturen in vielen modernen Stahlkonstruktion. Weitere Effizienzsteigerungen können durch additives Fertigen sowie bionische Bauweisen erreicht werden. Hochfeste Zusatzwerkstoffe für formgebendes MSG-Schweißen (engl.: Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing, WAAM) sind bereits von den Schweißzusatzherstellern lieferbar. Eine breite industrielle Anwendung insbesondere für KMU ist aufgrund fehlender quantitativer Erkenntnisse und Richtlinien bezüglich schweißbedingter Beanspruchungen und Bauteilsicherheit während der Herstellung und des Betriebs derzeit stark limitiert. In einem gemeinsamen Forschungsprojekt (FOSTA-P1380/IGF21162BG) der BAM und der TU Chemnitz werden daher die mit Eigenspannungsausbildung und der Gefahr einer Kaltrissbildung verbundenen prozess- und werkstoffbedingten sowie konstruktiven Einflüsse beim WAAM hochfester Stähle untersucht. Der vorliegende Beitrag fokussiert die Analyse der Auswirkungen von Schweißwärmeführung und Design der WAAM-Bauteile auf Nahtgeometrie, Materialausnutzung und Eigenspannungen. Hierfür werden geometrisch definierte Probenkörper (Hohlquader) vollautomatisiert mit einem speziellen, hochfesten WAAM-Massivdraht (Streckgrenze >790 MPa) geschweißt. Die Wärmeführung wird innerhalb eines statistischen Versuchsplans so variiert, dass die Dt8/5-Abkühlzeiten im empfohlenen Verarbeitungsbereich (ca. 5 s bis 20 s) liegen. Das WAAM-Schweißen komplexer Geometrien mit variierenden Schweißwärmeführungen und geometrischen Verhältnissen bzw. Wanddicken bedingt neben den Auswirkungen auf die Abkühlbedingungen, Abkühlzeiten und Gefüge deutliche Einflüsse auf die konstruktiven Steifigkeitsverhältnisse beim Schweißen. Es zeigen sich anhand der Schweißexperimente signifikante Auswirkungen durch Probenskalierung und Wärmeeinbringung auf die resultierenden lokalen Eigenspannungen. Die Folge können ungünstige Bauteileigenschaften und risskritische Zugeigenspannungen sein.
Die Bestrebungen zur Verringerung der CO2-Emissionen erfordern hochbelastbare und effiziente Komponenten aus Stahl in der Anlagen-, Verfahrens- und Kraftwerkstechnik. Hierfür sind in zunehmendem Maße auf den Anwendungsfall und Stahlwerkstoff abgestimmte Verschleißschutzschich-ten und definierte, zerspante Oberflächen notwendig. Die hohen Härten dieser Schichten und der Einsatz konventioneller Co-basierter Verschleißwerkstoffe führen oftmals zu unwirtschaftlichen Bauteilen, gerade aufgrund hohen Werkzeugverschleißes bei der Zerspanung mit geometrisch bestimmter Schneide. Er-kenntnisse über den Einsatz Ni-basierter Verschleißwerkstoffe und die Optimierung der Zerspanbarkeit mittels Legierungsmodifikationen und moderner hybrider Fräsprozesse ohne Verschlechterung der Ver-schleißschutzeigenschaften sind deshalb für die Anwender und Verarbeiter zur wirtschaftlichen Fertigung hochbelasteter Stahlbauteile wesentlich. Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt die Untersuchungsmethodik eines aktuell laufenden Vorhabens der TU Clausthal und BAM, Berlin, vor. Fokus liegt hierbei auf den hochin-strumentierten Fräsexperimenten, die eine reproduzierbare Analyse und Korrelation zwischen den mik-rostrukturellen Eigenschaften der auftraggeschweißten Legierungen, dem Zerspanprozess und der Zer-spanbarkeit, insbesondere der resultierenden Oberflächenintegrität, ermöglichen sollen.
Die Verringerung der CO2-Emissionen ist eng mit der Entwicklung hocheffizienter und wirtschaftlicher Komponenten aus Stahl in der Anlagen- und Verfahrenstechnik verknüpft. Um den hohen kombinier-ten korrosiven, tribologischen, thermischen und mechanischen Beanspruchungen stand zu halten, werden auf Anwendungsfall und Stahlwerkstoff abgestimmte Verschleißschutzschichten eingesetzt. Neben der zunehmenden Forderung konventionelle Kobalt- durch Nickellegierungen zu ersetzen, wächst auch der Bedarf nach definierten Ober- bzw. Funktionsflächen hoher Güte. Aufgrund hohen Werkzeugverschleißes ist die erforderliche Fräsbearbeitung zu Herstellung der komplexen Geomet-rien der Bauteile für KMU oftmals wirtschaftlich nicht möglich. Mittels Legierungsmodifikation der Schweißzusätze für nickelbasierte plasmaauftraggeschweißte Verschleißschutzschichten und durch den Einsatz innovativer ultraschallunterstützter Fräsprozesse soll eine günstigere Zerspanbarkeit er-reicht werden, ohne das Verschleißschutzpotential zu mindern. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird der Ein-fluss der mittels Legierungsmodifikation eingestellten Gefüge- und Ausscheidungsmorphologie auf die Zerspanbarkeit untersucht. Dies erfolgt anhand einer typischerweise für Schneckenmaschinen einge-setzten Verschleißschutzlegierung NiCrMoSiFeB-Legierung („Colmonoy 56 PTA“), die konventionelle CoCr-Legierungen (Stellite) substituiert. Metallurgische Untersuchungen und In-situ-Messungen auf-tretender Prozesskräfte an der Werkzeugschneide beim Fräsen sowie anschließende Untersuchungen von Werkzeugverschleiß und Oberflächenintegrität ermöglichen eine detaillierte Analyse und Korrela-tion zwischen mikrostrukturellen Eigenschaften und Zerspanbarkeit.
The European Commission has identified Advanced Manufacturing and Advanced Materials as two of six Key Enabling Technologies (KETs). It is considered that Metrology is a key enabler for the advancement of these KETs. Consequently, EURAMET, the association of metrology institutes in Europe, has strengthened the role of Metrology for these KETs by enabling the creation of a European Metrology Network (EMN) for Advanced Manufacturing. The EMN is comprised of National Metrology Institutes (NMIs) and Designated Institutes (DIs) from across Europe and was formally established in October 2021. The aim of the EMN is to provide a high-level coordination of European metrology activities for the Advanced Manufacturing community.
The EMN itself is organized in three sections representing the major stages of the manufacturing chain: 1) Advanced Materials, 2) Smart Manufacturing Systems, and 3) Manufactured Components & Products. The EMN for Advanced Manufacturing is engaging with stakeholders in the field of Advanced Manufacturing (large companies & SMEs, industry organisations, existing networks, and academia), as well as the wider Metrology community, including Technical Committees, to provide input for the Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) on Metrology for Advanced Manufacturing.
This contribution will give an overview about the first version of the SRA prepared by the EMN for Advanced Manufacturing
The prevention of brittle fracture of spent fuel claddings during long-term dry interim storage is based on experimental investigations, numerical analyses and assessment methods for predicting the mechanical behavior and determining limiting conditions. The ring compression test (RCT) is an established experimental method for characterizing cladding material. Test results for various high-burnup pressure water reactor zirconium-based fuel cladding alloys (e.g., ZIRLO®, M5®) are publicly available. To reduce the effort associated with irradiated samples in hot cells, it is helpful to perform studies on unirradiated surrogate cladding material. Based on such experimental data, load-displacement curves were numerically analyzed for selected cladding materials. In the presence of radial hydrides, a sample may suddenly fail by fracture even at small deformations. Noticeable load drops in the RCT occur associated to unstable crack propagation through the radial hydride network. The failure mechanism is quasi-cleavage in the hydrides and micro-void nucleation, growth, and coalescence in the zirconium matrix, with ductile tearing patches connecting neighboring hydrides. The failure process was simulated by cohesive zones controlled by the fracture energy and the cohesive strength. A modeling approach is presented in which the radial hydride morphology is taken into account. Based on the developed fracture mechanics approach with cohesive zone modeling, not only the deformation behavior but also the failure behavior of irradiated as well as unirradiated claddings with radial hydrides under RCT loading conditions can be adequately described.
The residual post-fire mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced epoxy composites are influenced by their fire residues after burning. This study uses intumescent/low-melting glass flame retardants to tailor fire residues in epoxy resin. Processibility of prepregs and their quality are analysed for transfer of the flame-retardant epoxy resins to layered glass-fiber reinforced composites. Minimal effects were found on the pre-fire flexural strengths of the composites due to low loading of the flame retardants. However, when transferred to glass-fiber reinforced composites, the fire residues diminish significantly. Further studies are required to improve theoretical and experimental estimations of the post-fire mechanics of the composites.
Die Wärmeverteilung des Lasers beim Laserstrahltiefschweißen ist für die Formgebung der Dampfkapillare und für die Schweißbaddynamik entscheidend. In dieser Arbeit werden die Laserwärmeverteilung und deren Einflüsse auf die Schweißbadtiefe sowie -breite numerisch anhand des Ray-Tracing-Verfahrens analysiert. Hierbei wird der La-serstrahl in mehreren Strahlenbündeln bzw. Subrays unterteilt. Diesbezüglich soll der Pfad der Subrays präzis be-rechnet werden, um die Dynamik der Dampfkapillare und des Schweißbades eines realen Schweißprozesses rich-tig abzubilden. Zu diesem Zweck beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit der Genauigkeitsverbesserung der Kontaktposition und der Reflexionsrichtung der Subrays auf der freien Oberfläche anhand der Level-Set-Methode. Um die Güte dieses Simulationsansatzes zu gewährleisten, wurde eine Gegenüberstellung mit den zwei klassischen Ray-Tracing-Verfahren mittels drei verschiedenen Benchmark-Testreihen durchgeführt. Anschließend wurden die Versuchsergebnisse zur Validierung der implementierten numerischen Ansätze verwendet. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit kann es gezeigt werden, dass unterschiedliche Wärmeverteilung aufgrund der verschiedenen Ray-Tracing-Verfahren deutlich zu erkennen ist, welche wiederum die Schweißbaddynamik sowie die lokalisierte Dampfkapil-lardynamik stark beeinflussen. Ferner wurde es bestätigt, dass die implementierte Level-Set-Methode zu einer ge-naueren Ermittlung der Kontaktposition und der Reflexionsrichtung der Subrays und somit zu einer Verbesserung der simulierten Schmelzkontur führt.
Die Additive Fertigung gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung für die Verarbeitung von Kupferwerkstoffen im industriellen Umfeld. Hierbei wird verstärkt auf drahtförmige Ausgangswerkstoffe gesetzt, da diese Vorteile im Handling bieten, bereits aus der Schweißtechnik bekannt sind und sich zumeist durch geringere Beschaffungskosten auszeichnen. In den letzten Jahren entwickelte sich unter den drahtbasierten Verfahren der Directed-Energy-Deposition (DED) eine Prozessvariante unter Nutzung des Elektronenstrahls zur industriellen Marktreife. Dabei zeigt die Technologie Wire Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing (DED-EB) besondere Vorteile gegenüber anderen DED-Prozessen für die Anwendung an Kupfer. Um das Verfahren einem breiten Anwenderkreis in der Industrie zugänglich zu machen, fehlen jedoch Daten zu Leistungsfähigkeit, Prozessgrenzen und Anwendungsmöglichkeit- en. Die vorliegende Untersuchung beschäftigt sich mit dieser Problemstellung am Beispiel der Legierung CuSn1MnSi. Über mehrstufige Testschweißungen werden die physikalisch möglichen Prozessgrenzen ermittelt und Rückschlüsse über die Eignung der Parameter zum additiven Aufbau gezogen. An verschiedenen additiv gefertigten Probekörpern werden anschließend Kennwerte für Aufbaurate, Härte, Mikrostruktur, Oberflächenqualität sowie mechanische Festigkeitswerte ermittelt. Es zeigt sich, dass das die durch DED-EB hergestellten Proben, trotz des groben Gefüges sowie der thermischen Belastung im Aufbauprozess, in ihren Eigenschaften gut mit den Spezifikationen des Ausgangsmaterials übereinstimmen.
Um Bauteile vor Verschleiß und Korrosion zu schützen werden Beschichtungen aus resistenteren Materialien aufgetragen. Hierzu zählen unter anderen die Legierungen auf Cobalt-Chrom Basis. Der diskrete Materialsprung ist jedoch unter thermischen und mechanischen Belastungen häufig Ursache für das Versagen der Beschichtung. In dieser Arbeit werden daher Materialgradierungen von verschiedenen Stahllegierungen zu einer Cobalt-Chrom Basislegierung untersucht. Die Ergebnissen werden dafür auch mit Resultaten zu vorangegangenen Untersuchungen verglichen. Kern der Arbeit bilden geätzte Schliffbilder der Materialpaarungen und Auswertungen mittels Farbeindringprüfung sowie die metallografische Bestimmung der Porosität. Ziel der Arbeit ist ein defektfreier Aufbau der funktional gradierten Materialpaarungen.
This paper scopes the specialties of a hazard identification study for large and extra-large unmanned undersea vehicles (UUVs). A generic node/function structure is derived from different large and extra-large UUV designs, partially own vehicle designs from research projects, and partially from commercial vehicles. For each node, a short overview of its components and the proper function or operations is defined. A set of guide words is used to prompt a hazard discussion for each node, which identifies unwanted functions, resulting in potential hazards and unmitigated consequences. Related to the SafeMASS-Report from DNV, this work concentrates on selected topics of the bridge-related function on voyage, control & monitoring, and abnormal situations. For unmanned vehicles without any person on board, these three topics become more important for underwater vehicles with very limited connectivity or temporary disruptions of communication whereby an operator in a remote-control center could only be provided with rough vehicle or mission states. Therefore, vehicle control, whether in hard- or software, must handle most tasks belonging to the considered functions automatically or autonomously. Hence, the most appropriate reactions of the system to unwanted system
behavior must be implemented. This HAZID study could, on the one hand, be used as background for such an implementation, and on the other hand, it is used to verify the implemented actions on the risks and hazards.
Within fracture mechanics safety assessment for steels in nuclear technology, the probabilistic master curve (MC) concept according to ASTM E1921 is currently used for quasi-static loading conditions as a supplement to the established deterministic ASME reference curve concept. However, for ductile cast iron (DCI), a systematic review of potential modifications to the assumptions and the procedure according to ASTM E1921 and an associated validation are still lacking. For this reason, the application of the fracture mechanics MC concept to ferritic ductile cast iron is being investigated in a recently started joint research project between MPA Stuttgart and BAM Berlin. According to the IAEA guidelines SSG 26, the safety assessment of DCI containers for transport as well as storage of radioactive materials is based on the fracture mechanics criterion of general crack initiation exclusion. Within this context, the focus of the current research project is on the further development of brittle fracture safety assessment methods. Therefore, a methodology shall be established to determine and assess dynamic fracture toughness values of DCI in the ductile-to-brittle transition regime, using samples extracted from a component. For the experimental program, a DCI material will be produced as it is generally used for transport and storage containers. A basic mechanical-technological material characterization consisting of tensile, Charpy and Pellini tests is planned and a comprehensive fracture mechanics test program was compiled covering dynamic testing of DC(T)9, C(T)25, C(T)50, SE(B)10, SE(B)25, and SE(B)140 specimens. Numerical analyses of different specimen geometries and test setups are planned to investigate the influences of stress triaxiality and loading rate. Throughout the experimental program, the microstructure-property relationship will be investigated based on quantitative metallographic and fractographic analyses. Finally, different MC assessment strategies will be considered and modifications will be made if necessary.
Heterogeneous construction and demolition waste can be used as raw material to produce lightweight aggregates (LWA) similar to expanded clays. In the joint research project “REALight”, LWA were produced from masonry rubble in a thermal expanding process using a pilot production plant with a rotary kiln. Our research focuses on the characterisation of the novel LWA and their use in different hydraulically bound applications.
Infra-lightweight concrete (ILC) was produced with the novel LWA, which accounts for two thirds of total aggregate volume, and Celitement, which is a hydraulic binder with a low carbon footprint. Its dry bulk density is ≤ 800 kg/m³. Strength and durability properties are comparable to ILC data from the literature.
Lime-based repair mortars (LRM) containing LWA are beneficial for sandstone conservation due to their similar properties regarding porosity, water absorption and strength. A two-layer repair mortar system, which consists of a filling mortar to fill large voids and a covering mortar to modulate the surface texture to the historic sandstone, was developed.
In our contribution, we present results of the LWA characterisation according to the European standard EN 13055:2016. Requirements and challenges of the use of the novel LWA in ILC and LRM are discussed.
In this paper, we demonstrate the value of 1H NMR relaxometry for studying the hydration of clinker-reduced, more climate-friendly cementitious binders. The results were obtained on typical CEM I cements and sister samples containing two different reactive agricultural ashes as well as non-reactive biochars as supplementary cementitious materials. The findings prove that time-resolved NMR measurements provide valuable additional information when combined with classical heat flow calorimetry.
Offshore-Windenergieanlagen erfordern Gründungskonzepte aus unterpulver-(UP-)geschweißten Dickblechen (bspw. der Güte S420ML). Während der Schweißfertigung kann eine zeitverzögerte wasserstoffunterstützte Kaltrissbildung auftreten, deren Bewertung aufgrund der Bauteilgröße von Offshore-Strukturen sehr komplex ist. Deswegen wurde eine bauteilähnliche Geometrie (Mock-Up) entwickelt, um reale Steifigkeitsverhältnisse auf den Labormaßstab zu übertragen. Zusätzliche Versteifungen simulieren die Wirkung einer Einspannung bzw. Schrumpfbehinderung der Schweißnaht. Über die Verwendung von Schweißpulvern mit definierter Feuchte wurden zudem ein Extremszenario der Wasserstoffaufnahme simuliert. Entsprechend der vorgegebenen Mindestwartezeit für die ZfP von bis zu 48 h wurde die Schweißnaht zerstörungsfrei mit Phased-Array-Ultraschall-Prüfung (PAUT) geprüft und die Eigenspannungen über Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD) bestimmt. Zusätzlich wurde die Wasserstoffverteilung in der Schweißverbindung numerisch simuliert. Außer zulässigen Defekten (wie Poren), wurde keine verzögerte Kaltrissbildung in den Mock-Ups festgestellt, was auf hohe Rissbeständigkeit hindeutet.
Robotic Measurement System Concept for Greenhouse Gas Tomography in Wastewater Treatment Plants
(2023)
This paper introduces a conceptual framework for a robotic greenhouse gas (GHG) measurement system designed for wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The emphasis is on accurate gas tomography measurement of emissions, crucial for national emission assessments. The proposed system is movable, semi-autonomous, and employs a combination of ground and air robots equipped with integral remote gas sensors and in-situ sensors. Employing a two/two configuration ensures comprehensive coverage of WWTPs, overcoming obstacles. The system concept lays the foundation for future implementation and evaluation, addressing the need for enhanced understanding of GHG emissions from WWTPs.