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The behavior of amorphous polymers in contact with gas atmospheres is still an area of both fundamental scientific and applied industrial research. Applications range from the use as barrier materials or protective coatings to active layers in sensor applications (‘artificial nose’) and the large field of gas separation membranes. In all these applications, high concentrations of small penetrant molecules may lead to a plasticization of the polymer. This effect is utilized in processing applications, where supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) can be used as a plasticizer.4 The phenomenon of penetrant induced plasticization of glassy polymers is also observed in gas separation membranes.5 In the process of natural gas sweetening, the CO2 content of the gas mixture is reduced by separation of the CO2 from the fuel gas methane (CH4) to avoid corrosion of pipelines and to enhance the fuel value. Solubility and diffusivity of the respective gas determine the separation performance of the membrane material, i.e., the permselectivity. Both parameters are connected to the internal structure of the polymer and its free volume. To achieve high throughputs, e.g. to enhance costeffectiveness, it is desirable to increase the CO2 solubility and mobility. However, the observed plasticization and the associated relaxations in the polymer matrix change its structure and free volume, and thereby affect the selectivity of the material.6 In addition, other properties of the polymer are influenced, e.g. a reduction of glass transition temperature,7 yield stress8 and creep compliance9 have been observed. The origin and mechanism of these structural relaxations are poorly understood, as are the factors that influence solubility and mobility of the plasticizing penetrant. This lack of knowledge leads to a development of new or optimized materials, which is in part determined by trial and error. A deeper understanding of the phenomena that accompany gas sorption on the molecular level is therefore needed to control material properties and enable a targeted design of functional materials. Therefore, in this work, laboratory experiments are combined with detailed atomistic molecular simulations. Modelling. In detailed atomistic molecular modeling, the interactions of an assembly of atoms, e.g. a polymer molecule, are calculated according to known physical laws. Several established analysis methods allow an indirect determination of certain properties of such assemblies, others can even be directly calculated.10 However, CPU-power limits both the size and the simulation time of such assemblies. The size of the simulated packing models used in this work (_ 5000 atoms) ranges among the larger models found in the literature. Forcefield based Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations are calculated in femtosecond steps, but reliable results are usually not obtained until a nanosecond of net simulation time has been performed. Millions of interactions need to be calculated, making the time effort for these ‘virtual experiments’ comparable to laboratory experiments. However, increasing speed of single processors and the possibility of parallel processing will further reduce the evaluation times for such simulations in the future. The goal of computer simulations is therefore to establish reliable methods to predict material properties. Properties of new materials could then be assessed by simulations first and only the most promising materials need to be synthesized for further testing, reducing the expense of trial and error. Although some methods already exist to predict polymer/gas properties from simulations, which show well agreeing results in ideal circumstances, they frequently fail when applied to less moderate conditions, e.g., high penetrant concentrations, long time scales, large penetrants etc. The aforementioned gas induced plasticization of polymers presents such a case where the gap of time scales between experiment and available simulation time amounts to several orders of magnitude. The time scale of simulations is limited to a few nanoseconds and therefore it is not possible to directly simulate relaxations of the glassy matrix as they are observed experimentally. Experiments, on the other hand, yield results of the real macroscopic system, and though molecular details cannot be observed individually, the accumulated effects permit the analysis through models on a statistical or phenomenological basis. It is the aim of this work to survey new approaches of a combined analysis of experimental and modelling results and to establish, where possible, a convergence of boundary conditions or, alternatively, an identification and isolation of comparable aspects of these seemingly incompatible methods of research. To this effect, phenomenological models are utilized as a means of interpretation of experimental data as well as to construe modelling results.
Verschiedene experimentelle Untersuchungen sind zur Erlangung einer Zulassung für Gefahrgutverpackungen notwendig, um die Eignung der Verpackung für den Transport gefährlicher Guter nachzuweisen. Ziel sind keine absoluten Werte für die Zeit bis zum Versagen bei der Innendruckprüfung oder die mittlere Versagensfallhöhe, sondern die Veränderung des Verpackungsverhaltens bei dem Einsatz eines anderen HDPEs. Alle Kanister aus den vier verschiedenen Werkstoffen wurden speziell hergestellt, um die Werkstoffeigenschaften differenziert beurteilen zu können. Das Granulat, aus dem die Platten gepresst und die Kanister hergestellt wurden, stammte aus derselben Charge, um Schwankungen zwischen den Chargen als Einflussquelle auszuschließen. Die Wanddicke ist entscheidend, daher wurden die Verpackungen mit dem Computertomographen und mittels Streifenprojektionsverfahren vermessen und die Ergebnisse mit dem magnetostatischen Messverfahren verglichen. Die Verformung bei der Innendruckprüfung wurde mittels Stereo-Bildkorrelationsverfahren vermessen. Die Verschiebung in radialer Richtung sowie die aquivalente Dehnung wurden ausgewertet und konnten in der numerischen Berechnung nachgebildet werden. Ebenso deren starke Beschleunigung aufgrund der Quellung, indem die Temperatur im Materialgesetz entsprechend der Quellung verwendet wurde. Der Widerstand gegen Innendruck und das Absorptionsverhalten hangen von der Dichte des Werkstoffs ab. Die Konditionierung bei erhöhter Temperatur führt zu Nachkristallisation und zum Abbau von Eigenspannungen. Die Veränderung der Dichte zwischen den Werkstoffen kann anhand gepresster Platten beurteilt werden. Eine höhere Dichte führt zu einem besseren Bauteilverhalten unter Innendruck. Der Zusammenhang von mittlerer Versagensfallhöhe und der Schlagzugzähigkeit gekerbter Proben aus den Seitenwanden der Kanister sowie der Kerbschlagzähigkeit von gepressten Platten konnte nachgewiesen werden. Eine höhere Kerbschlagzähigkeit führt zu einer höheren mittleren Versagensfallhöhe. Eine geringe Beständigkeit gegen oxidativen Abbau senkt die mittlere Versagensfallhöhe drastisch. Bei einer hohen Beständigkeit gegen oxidativen Abbau führt die Vorlagerung mit Salpetersaure jedoch nicht zu einer Verringerung der mittleren Versagensfallhöhe im Vergleich zum Zustand ohne Vorlagerung. Der oxidative Abbau kann an gepressten Platten ermittelt werden und erlaubt einen Ruckschluss auf die Veränderung der mittleren Versagensfallhöhe.