9 Komponentensicherheit
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Alloy 36 (1.3912) is an alloy with 36% nickel and 64% iron and is generally classified as a difficult-to-cut material. Increasingly complex structures and the optimization of resource efficiency are making additive manufacturing (AM) more and more attractive for the manufacture or repair of components. Subsequent machining of AM components is unavoidable for its final contour. By using modern, hybrid machining processes, e.g., ultrasonic-assisted milling (US), it is possible to improve the cutting situation regarding the resulting surface integrity as well as the cutting force. Part I deals with the influence of the alloying elements Ti, Zr, and Hf on the microstructure and the hardness of the initial alloy 36. Part II focusses on the effect of the alloy modifications and the ultrasonic assistance on machinability as well as on the surface integrity after finish-milling. The results show a highly significant influence of the ultrasonic assistance. The cutting force during the US is reduced by over 50% and the roughness of approx. 50% compared to conventional milling (CM) for all materials investigated. Moreover, the US causes a defect-free surface and induces near-surface compressive residual stresses. CM leads to a near-surface stress state of approx. 0 MPa.
The importance of high-temperature materials made of iron aluminides (FeAl) has been increasing in light weight applications, e.g., airplane turbines, due to the high material’s specific strength. However, the highly economic production by means of permanent mold casting involves special microstructures for Fe26Al4Mo0.5Ti1B alloy components leading to difficult machinability for subsequent finishing milling and low surface qualities. Major effects of tool and machining parameter variation incorporating ultrasonic assistance on the milling process and surface integrity are shown. Loads for tool and component surface are significantly adjustable to enable an economic process chain regarding the surface integrity of safety-relevant components.
The importance of high-temperature materials made of iron aluminides (FeAl) has been increasing in light weight applications, e.g., airplane turbines, due to the high material’s specific strength. However, the highly economic production by means of permanent mold casting involves special microstructures for Fe26Al4Mo0.5Ti1B alloy components leading to difficult machinability for subsequent finishing milling and low surface qualities. Major effects of tool and machining parameter variation incorporating ultrasonic assistance on the milling process and surface integrity are shown. Loads for tool and component surface are significantly adjustable to enable an economic process chain regarding the surface integrity of safety-relevant components.
Co-Cr alloys are frequently used for highly stressed components, especially in turbine and plant construction, due to their high resistance to thermal and mechanical stress, as well as to corrosive and abrasive loads. Furthermore, they are classified as difficult-to-cut materials because of their high strength and toughness as well as their low thermal conductivity. However, for Co, an increased cost and supply risk can be observed in recent years. Therefore, additive manufacturing (AM) offers significant economic advantages due to higher material efficiency regarding repair, modification, and manufacturing of such components. Concerning inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the microstructure and properties as well as manufacturing-related stresses, a lot of knowledge is still necessary for the economic use of additive welding processes in SMEs. In addition, subsequent machining, particularly contour milling, is essential to generate the required complex contours and surfaces. Hence, additive and machining manufacturing processes need to be coordinated in a complementary way, especially due to additional challenges arising in milling of heterogeneous hard-to-cut microstructures. Recently, it has been shown that modern, hybrid cutting processes, such as ultrasonic-assisted milling (US), can improve the cutting situation. In this investigation, the Co-Cr initial alloy is additionally modified with Ti and Zr up to 1 wt% with the aim to enhance the homogeneity of the microstructure and, thus, the machinability. Hence the investigation includes finish milling tests of the AM components and the comparison of US and conventional machining. Both the modifications and the ultrasonic assistance exhibit a significant effect on the machining situation; for example US causes a higher surface integrity of the finish milled surfaces compared to conventional milling.
Nickel-Iron-Alloy Modification to Enhance Additively Welded Microstructure for Subsequent Milling
(2022)
The aerospace industry uses nickel–iron alloys, e.g., FeNi36, to create moulding tools for composite materials, since these alloys have a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Nickel–iron alloys are hard-to-cut materials. The moulding tools are large in size and involve complex structures, making them cost-intensive and difficult to manufacture. Thus, the focus is set on additive manufacturing, which can additionally enable the repair of components in order to eliminate local defects. However, the process usually results in a heterogeneous microstructure and anisotropic mechanical properties. As there is a high demand for a precise and exact fit of the precision moulds and the surface quality, the welded components must be subsequently machined. Additionally, inhomogeneous microstructure may lead to unstable cutting forces and conditions. Consequently, a modification of the microstructure morphology is achieved through specific alloy modifications in order to stabilise and improve the subsequent machining process. Therefore, titanium and zirconium are chosen as modification elements with a maximum 1% weight percent and are added to nickel–iron alloy powder. The elements are alloyed, and build-up welded by plasma-transferred-arcwelding. The resulting microstructure morphology of the welded wall structure and the machining properties are then determined. It can be shown that titanium has a significant effect on the structural morphology of the welded layers, as well as on the machining.
Ni alloys are generally classified as difficult-to-cut materials and cost intensive. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers economic advantages. However, machining of these AM components is mandatory to create the final contour or surface. The inhomogeneous and anisotropic microstructure and properties of AM components causes an unstable cutting process. Moreover, undesirable tensile residual stresses are generated due to subsequent machining. In this investigation, the initial alloy 36 is modified with Ti and Nb up to 1.6 wt.-% and build-up welded via gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and plasma-transferred-arc (PTA). Then, finish-milling tests are carried out to investigate the influence of the modification as well as the cutting parameters on the resulting cutting force and the surface integrity. In addition, the conventional milling process (CM) is compared with the ultrasonic-assisted milling process (US), which has a significant influence on the machinability as well as on the surface integrity.
Cobalt chromium alloys are often used in turbine and plant construction. This is based on their high thermal and mechanical stress resistance as well as their high wear resistance to corrosive and abrasive loads. However, cobalt is a cost-intensive material that is difficult to machine. Moreover, increasingly complex structures and the optimisation of resource efficiency also require additive manufacturing steps for the production or repair of components in many sectors. Concerning inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the microstructure and properties as well as manufacturing-related stresses, a lot of knowledge is still necessary for the economic use of additive welding processes in SMEs. As a result of the high stresses on the components
and requirements for a high surface quality, a complementary use of additive and machining manufacturing processes is necessary. Thereby, Co–Cr alloys are extremely challenging for machining with geometrically defined cutting edges because of their low thermal conductivity combined with high strength and toughness. An approach to solve this problem is to refine and homogenise the microstructure. This is achieved by modifying the alloy with elements zirconium and hafnium, which are added up to a maximum of 1 wt.-%. A reduction of the process forces and stresses on the tool and work piece surface is also achievable via hybrid milling processes. There are already studies on the combined use of additive and machining manufacturing processes based on laser technology. However, knowledge based on powder and wire-based arc processes is important, as these processes are more widespread. Furthermore, the effects on the surface zone of additively manufactured components by hybrid finish milling have not yet been a subject of research. The results show that the structural morphology could be significantly influenced with the addition of zirconium and hafnium.
Alloy 36 (1.3912), also known as “Invar”, is an alloy with 36% nickel. It was developed in 1897 by Guillaume and stands out for its very low thermal expansion coefficient. It is classified as a difficult-to-cut material and is commonly used for the production of fiber-reinforced composites in the field of mold construction. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers many economic advantages regarding the repair, modification and manufacture of entire components. Subsequent machining of the AM components is necessary to account for complex structures, final contours or defined surfaces. In part I of this investigation, the initial alloy 36 is modified with the elements Ti, Zr and Hf up to a maximum of 0.33 wt.-%. The influence of the modification elements on the microstructure as well as on the hardness of the AM components is examined. Part II focusses on the effect of the alloy modifications on machinability as well as on the surface integrity of plasma-transferred-arc-welded (PTA) and finish milled invar components. Machining tests were carried out, to investigate the influence of ultrasonic assistance and the effects of modification elements Ti, Zr and Hf on the occurring cutting forces, temperatures and resulting surface integrity of the AM components made of alloy 36 and their modifications. The results show a significant positive influence of ultrasonic assistance on the resulting cutting force as well as on the roughness of all materials investigated.
Co-Cr alloys are frequently used for highly stressed components, especially in turbine and plant construction, due to their high resistance to thermal and mechanical stress, as well as to corrosive and abrasive loads. Furthermore, they are classified as difficult-to-cut materials because of their high strength and toughness as well as their low thermal conductivity. However, for Co, an increased cost and supply risk can be observed in recent years. Therefore, additive manufacturing (AM) offers significant economic advantages due to higher material efficiency regarding repair, modification, and manufacturing of such components. Concerning inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the microstructure and properties as well as manufacturing-related stresses, a lot of knowledge is still necessary for the economic use of additive welding processes in SMEs. In addition, subsequent machining, particularly contour milling, is essential to generate the required complex contours and surfaces. Hence, additive and machining manufacturing processes need to be coordinated in a complementary way, especially due to additional challenges arising in milling of heterogeneous hard-to-cut microstructures. Recently, it has been shown that modern, hybrid cutting processes, such as ultrasonic-assisted milling (US), can improve the cutting situation. In this investigation, the Co-Cr initial alloy is additionally modified with Ti and Zr up to 1 wt.-% with the aim to enhance the homogeneity of the microstructure and, thus, the machinability. Hence the investigation includes finish milling tests of the AM components and the comparison of US and conventional machining. Both the modifications and the ultrasonic assistance exhibit a significant effect on the machining situation, e.g., US causes a higher surface integrity of the finish milled surfaces compared to conventional milling.
Ni alloys are generally classified as difficult-to-cut materials and cost intensive. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers economic advantages. However, machining of these AM components is mandatory to create the final contour or surface. The inhomogeneous and anisotropic microstructure and properties of AM components causes an unstable cutting process. Moreover, undesirable tensile residual stresses are generated due to subsequent machining. In this investigation, the initial alloy 36 is modified with Ti and Nb up to 1.6 wt.-% and build-up welded via gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and plasma-transferred-arc (PTA). Then, finish-milling tests are carried out to investigate the influence of the modification as well as the cutting parameters on the resulting cutting force and the surface integrity. In addition, the conventional milling process (CM) is compared with the ultrasonic-assisted milling process (US), which has a significant influence on the machinability as well as on the surface integrity.
Alloy 36 (1.3912), also known as “Invar”, is an alloy with 36% nickel. It was developed in 1897 by Guillaume and stands out for its very low thermal expansion coefficient. It is classified as a difficult-to-cut material and is commonly used for the production of fiber-reinforced composites in the field of mold construction. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers many economic advantages regarding the repair, modification and manufacture of entire components. Subsequent machining of the AM components is necessary to account for complex structures, final contours or defined surfaces. This is usually done using a tool with a geometrically defined cutting edge, i.e., milling processes. Surface integrity is determined by metallurgical (e.g., microstructure of the subsurface), topological (e.g., surface defects, roughness) and mechanical (e.g., residual stresses) factors, which is crucial in terms of component safety and performance. Modern, hybrid cutting processes, such as ultrasonic-assisted milling (US), provide potentially improvement of the cutting situation of these components.
In part I of this investigation, the initial alloy 36 is modified with the elements Ti, Zr and Nb up to a maximum of 1 wt.-%. The influence of the modification elements on the microstructure as well as on the hardness of the AM components is examined. Part II focusses on the effect of the alloy modifications on machinability as well as on the surface integrity of plasma-transferred-arc-welded (PTA) and finish milled invar components.
The results show a significant positive influence of ultrasonic assistance on the resulting cutting force of both materials. The modification with 1% Ti shows a positive influence on the surface integrity, as the roughness of the conventional machining processes is lower compared to the initial alloy, which has to be confirmed in further experiments.
Ni alloys are cost intensive materials and generally classified as difficult-to-cut materials. However, machining of these materials is needed especially in case of alloy 36 (1.3912), which is commonly used in mould construction for the production of fibre-reinforced composites. With regard to repair, modification and manufacturing of such components, additive manufacturing offers significant economic advantages. Nevertheless, subsequent machining steps are needed to achieve the final component contour and defined surface conditions. Dependent on the material and machining process conditions, detrimental tensile residual stresses may be the result on the machined surface, having negative impact on the component performance and safety. Recent studies exhibited that hybrid machining processes, such as ultrasonic-assisted milling (USAM), are suitable for achieving favourable residual stress states at the surface of difficult-to-cut Ni-Cr alloys. In this investigation, wire arc additive manufactured (WAAM) specimens of alloy 36 were finish milled under different milling conditions. In addition to the machined surfaces condition and topology, the surface-near residual stresses were analysed using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Especially for low cutting speeds, significantly improved surface properties, roughness parameters and lower mechanical and microstructural degradations were found for the specimen machined with USAM compared to conventional milling. The improved surface integrity could furthermore be observed by a significant reduction of the tensile residual stresses in the surface boundary area.
Ni alloys are cost intensive materials and generally classified as difficult-to-cut materials. However, machining of these materials is needed especially in case of alloy 36 (1.3912), which is commonly used in mould construction for the production of fibre-reinforced composites. With regard to repair, modification and manufacturing of such components, additive manufacturing offers significant economic advantages. Nevertheless, subsequent machining steps are needed to achieve the final component contour and defined surface conditions. Dependent on the material and machining process conditions, detrimental tensile residual stresses may be the result on the machined surface, having negative impact on the component performance and safety. Recent studies exhibited that hybrid machining processes, such as ultrasonic-assisted milling (USAM), are suitable for achieving favourable residual stress states at the surface of difficult-to-cut Ni-Cr alloys. In this investigation, wire arc additive manufactured (WAAM) specimens of alloy 36 were finish milled under different milling conditions. In addition to the machined surfaces condition and topology, the surface-near residual stresses were analysed using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Especially for low cutting speeds, significantly improved surface properties, roughness parameters and lower mechanical and microstructural degradations were found for the specimen machined with USAM compared to conventional milling. The improved surface integrity could furthermore be observed by a significant reduction of the tensile residual stresses in the surface boundary area.