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Structural health monitoring (SHM) intends to improve the management of engineering structures. The number of successful SHM projects – especially SHM research projects – is ever growing, yielding added value and more scientific insight into the management of infrastructure asset. With the advent of the data age, the value of accessible data becomes increasingly evident. In SHM, many new data-centric methods are currently being developed at a high pace. A consequent application of research data management (RDM) concepts in SHM projects enables a systematic management of raw and processed data, and thus facilitates the development and application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) methods to the SHM data. In this contribution, a case study based on an institutional RDM framework is presented. Data and metadata from monitoring the structural health of the Maintalbrücke Gemünden for a period of 16 months are managed with the RDM system BAM Data Store, which makes use of the openBIS data management software. An ML procedure is used to classify the data. Feature engineering, feature training and resulting data are performed and modelled in the RDM system.
Remediation of Cracks Formed in Grouted Connections of Offshore Energy Structures under Static Loads
(2018)
The future energy demand necessitates the exploration of all potential energy sources both onshore and offshore. Global trend has shifted towards offshore energy, which can be obtained from either carbon intensive or renewable options, hence requiring structures such as rigs, platforms, and monopiles. Most of these structures adopt easily installable construction techniques, where lower foundation need to be connected with the super structure by mean of grouted composite joints. Generally, these composite connections have exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill grout. Being located in remote offshore conditions, connections can experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Degradations were reported inside similar connections, which were installed in last three decades. Besides, grouting in the offshore sites may often be proven difficult, which eventually leads to reduced capacity of connections in the long run. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections should be planned ahead to minimize operational delays and costs in the future. This study aims at characterizing the nature of crack generation in grouted connections and thereby identifying the potential of repair using suitable repair material. Scaled grouted joints were manufactured using a novel mold, and connections were loaded under static load to visualize the main failure pattern. The failure mechanism and loading capacity are found compatible to previous results from earlier literature. Grouted connection was then repaired using cementitious injectable grout. The effectiveness of the repair system is also discussed.
Remediation of Cracks Formed in Grouted Connections of Offshore Energy Structures under Static Loads
(2018)
The future energy demand necessitates the exploration of all potential energy sources both onshore and offshore. Global trend has shifted towards offshore energy, which can be obtained from either carbon intensive or renewable options, hence requiring structures such as rigs, platforms, and monopiles. Most of these structures adopt easily installable construction techniques, where lower foundation need to be connected with the super structure by mean of grouted composite joints. Generally, these composite connections have exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill grout. Being located in remote offshore conditions, connections can experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Degradations were reported inside similar connections, which were installed in last three decades. Besides, grouting in the offshore sites may often be proven difficult, which eventually leads to reduced capacity of connections in the long run. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections should be planned ahead to minimize operational delays and costs in the future. This study aims at characterizing the nature of crack generation in grouted connections and thereby identifying the potential of repair using suitable repair material. Scaled grouted joints were manufactured using a novel mold, and connections were loaded under static load to visualize the main failure pattern. The failure mechanism and loading capacity are found compatible to previous results from earlier literature. Grouted connection was then repaired using cementitious injectable grout. The effectiveness of the repair system is also discussed.
Reliability analysis of deteriorating structural systems requires the solution of time-variant reliability problems.
In the general case, both the capacity of and the loads on the structure vary with time. This analysis can be approached by approximation through a series of time-invariant reliability problems, which is a potentially effective strategy for cases where direct solutions of the time-variant reliability problem are challenging, e.g. for structural systems with many elements or arbitrary load processes. In this contribution, we thoroughly Review the formulation of the equivalent time-invariant reliability problems and extend this approximation to structures for which inspection and monitoring data is available. Thereafter, we present methods for efficiently evaluating the reliability over time. In particular, we propose the combination of sampling-based methods with a FORM (first-order reliability method) approximation of the series system reliability problem that arises in the computation of the lifetime reliability. The framework and algorithms are demonstrated on a set of numerical examples, which include the computation of the reliability conditional on inspection data.
The surface erosion of soil samples caused by an impinging jet can be analyzed using the jet erosion test (JET), a standard experimental test to characterize the erosion resistance of soils. This paper specifically addresses the flow characteristics of a laminar impinging jet over the irregular surface of granular beds to discuss the pertinence and relevance of commonly used empirical estimations based on a selfsimilar model of a free jet. The JET is here investigated at the microscale with a coupled fluid-particle flow numerical odel featuring the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) for the fluid phase combined with the discrete element method (DEM) for the mechanical behavior of the solid particles. The hydrodynamics of a laminar plane free jet are confronted with the results from a parametric study of jet impingement, both on solid smooth and fixed granular surfaces, that take into account variations in particle size, distance from jet origin, and jet Reynolds number. The flow characteristics at the bed surface are here quantified, including the maximal values in tangential velocity and wall shear stress, which can be regarded as the major cause of particle detachments under hydrodynamic solicitation. It is shown that the maximal velocity at the impinged surface can be described by the free jet self-similar model, provided that a simple empirical coefficient is introduced. Further, an expression is proposed for the maximal shear stress in laminar conditions, including a Blasius-like friction coefficient that is inversely proportional to the square root of the jet Reynolds number. To conclude, finally, the JET erosion of different cohesionless granular samples is analyzed, confirming that the threshold condition at the onset of granular motion is consistent with the Shields diagram and in close agreement with previous experimental results.
Reinforced concrete is a widely used material for power generation structures, where load scenarios like impact loadings need to be considered. In this context mechanical splicing systems for the connection of reinforcement bars are of specific interest and impact resistance for the splicing systems has to be verified. High speed tensile tests need to be performed on splicing systems for reinforcement bars to confirm the capability of the coupler to resist impact loading. Furthermore, the ability of the reinforcement steel to dissipate energy by ductile behaviour with pronounced plastic strains should be confirmed by these tests. During the last decades comprehensive experiences were developed at BAM performing high speed tensile tests on reinforcement bars as well as on several splicing systems. For the lack of available standards defining these tests in detail an appropriate test procedure was developed and continuously optimized during this period at BAM. The test procedure is partially based on testing principles adapted from available standards. The main intention behind this test procedure is to perform high-speed tensile tests with a specific constant strain rate generated at the specimen. Furthermore, main objective was to establish a procedure to guarantee the comparability of test results for different diameter of reinforcement as well as for different types of couplers. Besides the pure execution of the high-speed tensile tests, the test specification also declares how to evaluate the measurements and the test results. Finally, some typical results will be presented in this contribution.
The reduction in train-induced ground vibrations by different railway lines and by mitigation measures in the propagation path was analysed in a unified approach by two-dimensional finite element calculations. In general, there was no reduction at low frequencies, and the reduction be-came stronger with increasing frequencies. A maximum reduction of 0.1 at high frequencies was established with an open trench. Reductions between 0.7 and 0.2 have been found for the other sit-uations, filled trenches, walls, plates, and blocks, as well as for railway lines on dams, in cuts and in a tunnel. Bridges can produce amplifications due to their resonance frequencies, but also strong reductions due to massive bridge piers. The influence of some parameters has been analysed, such as the bridge span, the inclination of the dam and the cut, the stiffness of the soil, and the tunnel structure. The dynamic track stiffnesses of a surface, bridge, and tunnel track have been calculated using the 3D finite-element boundary-element method for comparison with corresponding meas-urements.
Nowadays geotechnical engineering firms have powerful software tools to extent their consult-ing business also into dynamic soil-structure interaction, which before has been restricted to a rather small community of specialized experts in this field, and they certainly do. This is par-ticularly true with respect to non-seismic sources, that is all kinds of human induced vibrations. Hence, there is a demand from clients as well as from contractors to have guidance on the re-quirements as well as the limits of numerical modelling of soil-structure interaction. From the literature as well as from relevant standards, recommendations for the numerical modelling of soil-structure interaction problems involving seismic actions are well known, e. g. ASCE/SEI 4-16. There are, however, some particularities when dealing with human-induced vibrations, which are absent in seismic analyses. For human-induced excitations very little specific guid-ance has been published in the past. A machine foundation on a homogeneous half space ex-cited by harmonic loads with excitation frequency between 4 Hz and 64 Hz has been ana-lysed by means of several commercially available software packages. Parametric studies have been performed to verify if recommendations for seismic soil-structure analyses are valid for non-seismic analyses as well. This paper provides details on the benchmark example and the most important conclusions from the undertaken parametric studies.
Nowadays geotechnical engineering firms have powerful software tools to extent their consulting business also into dynamic soil-structure interaction, which before has been restricted to a rather small community of specialized experts in this field, and they certainly do. This is particularly true with respect to non-seismic sources, that is all kinds of human induced vibrations. Hence, there is a demand from clients as well as from contractors to have guidance on the requirements as well as the limits of numerical modelling of soil-structure interaction. From the literature as well as from relevant standards, recommendations for the numerical modelling of soil-structure interaction problems involving seismic actions are well known, e. g. ASCE/SEI 4-16. There are, however, some particularities when dealing with human-induced vibrations, which are absent in seismic analyses. For human-induced excitations very little specific guidance has been published in the past. A machine foundation on a homogeneous half space excited by harmonic loads with excitation frequency between 4 Hz and 64 Hz has been analysed by means of several commercially available software packages. Parametric studies have been performed to verify if recommendations for seismic soil-structure analyses are valid for non-seismic analyses as well. This paper provides details on the benchmark example and the most important conclusions from the undertaken parametric studies.
A simple and fast prediction scheme is presented for train-induced ground and building vibrations. For the emission, finite-element boundary-element or multiple-beam-on-continuous-soil models of the track have been analysed and approximated by faster track-on-Winkler-soil models. The vehicle-track interaction due to irregularities yields the excitation forces. For the transmission of waves in the soil, the wavenumber integral of the compliance of layered soils has been evaluated. The calculation time is reduced for the prediction by using the solution of a homogeneous half-space with a frequency-dependent wave velocity (the dispersion) of the soil. For the immision, many 2 and 3-dimenisonal finite-element building models have been investigated, and a good approximation has been established by a 1-dimensional soil-wall-floor model. In addition, the axle sequence of the train, the quasi-static and the “scattered” response of the soil, and the wave propagation from a tunnel to a pile foundation of a building have been included.
A simple and fast prediction scheme is presented for train-induced ground and building vibrations. For the emission, finite-element boundary-element or multiple-beam-on-continuous-soil models of the track have been analysed and approximated by faster track-on-Winkler-soil models. The vehicle-track interaction due to irregularities yields the excitation forces. For the transmission of waves in the soil, the wavenumber integral of the compliance of layered soils has been evaluated. The calculation time is reduced for the prediction by using the solution of a homogeneous half-space with a frequency-dependent wave velocity (the dispersion) of the soil. For the immision, many 2 and 3-dimenisonal finite-element building models have been investigated, and a good approximation has been established by a 1-dimensional soil-wall-floor model. In addition, the axle sequence of the train, the quasi-static and the “scattered” response of the soil, and the wave propagation from a tunnel to a pile foundation of a building have been included.
Die VDI Richtlinie 3837 enthält detaillierte Angaben zur Erschütterungsemission. Die DIN 45672-3 enthält nur den Tunnel- oder einen Bodenmesspunkt als Ausgangspunkt der Prognose. Die Erschütterungsanregung durch die Fahrzeug-Fahrweg-Wechselwirkung wird beschrieben. Die ERgebnisse der BAM stimmen sehr gut mit dem Prognosekonzept von Highspeed 2 überein. Dies wird an den Punkten 1. Störgrößen, 2. Achsimpulse, 3. Tunnelstrecken aufgezeigt.
In this contribution, we consider two applications in which probabilistic approaches can potentially complement or enhance the design and assessment of offshore wind turbine foundations. First, we illustrate in a numerical example that probabilistic modelling can be helpful in dealing with chang-es in turbine locations during the planning phase of an offshore wind farm. In this case, spatial probabilistic modelling of the ground conditions enables (a) an inference of the soil properties at the modified turbine location from field data collected at different locations across an offshore wind farm site and (b) an optimisation of further site investigations. Second, we discuss the uncer-tainties and risks associated with the installation of large diameter monopiles in soils with hetero-geneities such as strong layers and/or embedded boulders. Subsequently, we present a concept for modelling, understanding, and managing these risks based on a probabilistic model of the subgrade conditions, monopile, and subgrade-pile-interaction.
In this presentation, we discuss the potential of probabilistic approaches to the design and assessment of offshore foundations. The potential is demonstrated in a numerical example considering a laterally loaded monopile. As an outlook, we present a concept for managing the risk associated with installing large monopiles.
Explosion-induced ground vibrations have been measured at several places. Results about the wave propagation are shown in this contribution. The particle velocities of the soil have been measured at up to 1000 m distance from the explosion and are presented as time records (seismograms) and one-third octave band spectra (transfer functions). The results are compared with the results of hammer impacts. The seismograms clearly show different wave types, compressional waves of the air, the water and the soil, and the Rayleigh wave. The hammer impacts yield good results up to 100 m and incorporate higher frequencies at about 50 Hz, whereas the explosion results in a ground vibration with frequencies around 10 Hz and a longer range of influence. Explosion and hammer excitations are evaluated for the wave velocities of the soil by using the wavenumber and the spatial auto-correlation method. The attenuation of the ground vibration amplitudes A with distance r can well be presented by a power law A ~ r -q. This type of amplitude-distance law and the corresponding power q > 1 are substantiated in the contribution. The influence of the charge weight W is evaluated as an additional power law A ~ W -p for each measuring site. The power is found quite similarly around q 0.6 as all sites have a medium soft soil such as sand and clay. The obtained amplitude-charge-distance law can be used to predict the explosion-induced ground and building vibrations at other sites.
Explosion-induced ground vibrations have been measured at several places. Results about the wave propagation are shown in this contribution. The particle velocities of the soil have been measured at up to 1000 m distance from the explosion and are presented as time records (seismograms) and one-third octave band spectra (transfer functions). The results are compared with the results of hammer impacts. The seismograms clearly show different wave types, compressional waves of the air, the water and the soil, and the Rayleigh wave. The hammer impacts yield good results up to 100 m and incorporate higher frequencies at about 50 Hz, whereas the explosion results in a ground vibration with frequencies around 10 Hz and a longer range of influence. Explosion and hammer excitations are evaluated for the wave velocities of the soil by using the wavenumber and the spatial auto-correlation method. The attenuation of the ground vibration amplitudes A with distance r can well be presented by a power law A ~ r -q. This type of amplitude-distance law and the corresponding power q > 1 are substantiated in the contribution. The influence of the charge weight W is evaluated as an additional power law A ~ W -p for each measuring site. The power is found quite similarly around q 0.6 as all sites have a medium soft soil such as sand and clay. The obtained amplitude-charge-distance law can be used to predict the explosion-induced ground and building vibrations at other sites.
Prediction of building noise and vibration – 3D finite element and 1D wave propagation models
(2021)
Construction work or traffic excite nearby buildings, and the perceptible or audible vibration can be a nuisance for the inhabitants. The transfer of the vibration from the free field to the building has been calculated by the finite element method for many models in consultancy and research work. The analysis for all storeys of certain building points such as walls, columns and floors unveiled some rules, some typical modes, and some wavetype responses. A simplified building-soil model has been created, which includes well these effects of building-soil resonance, wall/column resonance, floor resonances, and the high-frequency reduction. The model consists of one wall for a wall-type apartment building or a column for each specific part (mid, side or corner) of a column-type office building. The building response in the high-frequency (acoustic) region is calculated as mean values over all storeys and over wider frequency bands, by wave-type asymptotes of an infinitely tall building, and by the soil to wall ratio of impedances. The secondary noise is predicted by Transfer values between the building vibration (center of floors, walls at a room corner) and the sound pressure.
Prediction of building noise and vibration – 3D finite element and 1D wave propagation models
(2021)
Construction work or traffic excite nearby buildings, and the perceptible or audible vibration can be a nuisance for the inhabitants. The transfer of the vibration from the free field to the building has been calculated by the finite element method for many models in consultancy and research work. The analysis for all storeys of certain building points such as walls, columns and floors unveiled some rules, some typical modes, and some wavetype responses. A simplified building-soil model has been created, which includes well these effects of building-soil resonance, wall/column resonance, floor resonances, and the high-frequency reduction. The model consists of one wall for a wall-type apartment building or a column for each specific part (mid, side or corner) of a column-type office building. The building response in the high-frequency (acoustic) region is calculated as mean values over all storeys and over wider frequency bands, by wave-type asymptotes of an infinitely tall building, and by the soil to wall ratio of impedances. The secondary noise is predicted by Transfer values between the building vibration (center of floors, walls at a room corner) and the sound pressure.
The present contribution evaluates four measuring series made by the Federal Institute of Material Research and Testing for the relations between train speed and ground vibration amplitudes. This experimental evaluation is supported by the simulation of the train passages at the different sites by using appropriate excitation mechanisms and forces as well as layered soil models which have been derived from impact measurements at each site.
The present contribution evaluates four measuring series made by the Federal Institute of Material Research and Testing for the relations between train speed and ground vibration amplitudes. This experimental evaluation is supported by the simulation of the train passages at the different sites by using appropriate excitation mechanisms and forces as well as layered soil models which have been derived from impact measurements at each site.
The present contribution evaluates four measuring series made by the Federal Institute of Material Research and Testing for the relations between train speed and ground vibration amplitudes. This experimental evaluation is supported by the simulation of the train passages at the different sites by using appropriate excitation mechanisms and forces as well as layered soil models which have been derived from impact measurements at each site.
This presentation discusses the potentials of probabilistic methods in offshore foundation installation, from the perspective of probabilistic ground models and data-driven site characterization. We discuss about methodologies for utilizing site-specific geotechnical (CPT) and geological data, aiming to construct an integrated ground model that can predict stratigraphic profiles and useful for geotechnical design parameters at any location within a 3D domain. The predicted parameters and stratigraphy are then used to predict the probability of potential pile tip damage, upon collision with a boulder.
Grouted connections are intensively used in offshore rigs, platforms as well as jacket and monopile offshore wind turbine structures. Being located in remote offshore conditions, these connections can experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Degradation was reported inside similar connections, which were installed in the last three decades. Grouting in the offshore sites may often be proven difficult, which eventually leads to reduced load-bearing capacity of connections in the long run. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections should be planned ahead to minimize operational delays and costs. In this study, scaled grouted connections were manufactured using a novel mould, whose integrity were monitored using digital image correlation (DIC). The connections were loaded under static load to visualize the main failure pattern using distributed fibre optic sensors and acoustic emission (AE) analysis. Grouted connections were then repaired using a cementitious injectable grout. The effectiveness of the grout injection was monitored using dye penetration technique. Finally, specimens are reloaded to identify the potential of such repair for grouted connections.
Due to the many possible applications, the uncomplicated production and the high application range, reinforced concrete is a widely used building material. This large range of physical material properties still poses an engineering challenge in determining all necessary requirements for predicting dynamic effects under impact load.
Many aspects of impact have already been examined and some correlations have been studied intensively. Examples are the work of Lastunen and Booker, who studied the influence of projectile properties on the impact form. Li has also investigated the local effects of an impact. The field of detailed damage analysis has not been in focus so far.
This presentation shows some studies in medium-velocity impact with the focus on post-impact damage evaluation. The impactor is modified so that the test plates show low penetration on the top and scabbing on the bottom. With the unique tomography lab test stand at BAM the plate is scanned after the impact and the damage is analyzed. Cracks and scabbing are made visible with a reconstruction. The comparison of simulation and tomography allows to create prognosis models for damage characterization.
Due to the wide range of applications, the easy production and the large field of use, reinforced concrete (RC) is a widespread building material. This variety of applications is reflected in a wide range of physical material properties. Not only therefor it still is a technical challenge to provide all necessary test conditions for experimentally reproducing dynamic effects under impact loading of RC structures. In this paper we present investigations on the thicknesses of RC plates under low and medium high velocity impact loading by a flat-tipped impactor. The planar tomography setup at BAM is used to visualize the impact damage and to characterize the damage features such as cracks, scabbing and spalling. Further, the comparison of tomography results with those of an applied numeric simulation analysis is used to verify the numeric models for future damage prognosis under impact loading. Using the results of both, the tomographic as well as the FE analysis, different damage features were investigated and compared regarding their validity. Crack damage plays a leading part and the significance of summarized crack values as well as their distribution is analyzed. The total damage value but also the determined damage distribution both provide an input for describing damage as a function of the impactor velocity and plate thickness.
Planar tomography and numerical analysis for damage characterization of impact loaded RC plates
(2020)
The damage analysis of reinforced concrete (RC) is of high interest for reasons of effective maintenance and structural safe-ty of buildings. The damage structures of RC plates loaded by an impact were investigated, applying X-ray planar tomogra-phy and finite element method (FEM). Planar tomography allows getting three-dimensional information of the RC elements and the damage including crack, spalling and scabbing. The FEM model validated on the tomography data justifies the appli-cation for further predictions of the damage description. In this study, we investigated concrete plates of three different thick-ness subjected to impacts at different low- and medium-velocity, whereby the used impactor had a flat tip, which resulted in small penetrations on the front side and scabbing on the rear side. In order to quantify the damage, the damage volume and its distribution through the plate were computed and the correlations between degree of damage and impact velocity were found out.
As many wind turbines approach the end of their design lifetime, from a technical point of view, comprehensive fatigue analysis of all critical parts is necessary to decide what comes after – continued operation, repowering, or decommissioning. Typically, it is a two-stage evaluation process consisting of a physical inspection of the structure and an analytical part to compare the design and actually experienced loading conditions. Structural health monitoring helps to reduce the uncertainties in the estimations by providing insight into deviations between the designed and the built structure. Furthermore, it allows the evaluation of the consumed fatigue lifetime by analyzing the strain measurements that mirror the actual structural response to experienced environmental and operational conditions. However, the measurement values are limited to a sparse number of instrumented spots on the structure, and further extrapolation to the non-instrumented (critical) sections is required to perform a complete fatigue assessment. One known approach is the external force reconstruction, which has only scarcely been considered for application in offshore wind turbines. In order to extend the previously developed thrust force reconstruction framework, this work discusses the possibilities and challenges of wind and wave loading reconstruction in offshore wind turbine support structures.
Surface erosion of a cohesive granular soil by a fluid flow is investigated numerically by coupling the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) for the fluid phase and the Discrete Element Method (DEM) for describing the motion of the solid particles. In addition, inter-particles cohesion is insured by a contact model featuring a paraboloidal yield surface. The use of a fully resolved LBM-DEM coupling technique is currently limited due to the computational cost when simulating a large number of particles. This issue can be overcome using the graphics processing unit (GPU) thanks to ist massively parallel hardware architecture. Here, we first present a 2D GPU implementation of LBM-DEM coupling for a granular assembly. The GPU implementations are approximatively 30 times faster than a single core CPU version. Then, we apply the parallelization technique to practical erosional cases, namely the jet erosion test (JET) and the shear-driven erosion by a Couette flow. These numerical tests aim to relate micro parameters of a cohesive material (eg. cohesion) to macro parameters (eg. soil erodibility, mechanical strengths). Preliminary results show that micromechanical features indeed provide a novel insight of soil erosion phenomena.
A significant number of new wind farms has to be installed and, at the same time, existing wind farms reaching the end of their planned life need to be reused efficiently to ensure that the ambitous goals for deploying offshore wind are met. Some relevant reuse alternatives for offshore wind farms are lifetime extension, repowering utilizing existing substructures and full replacement. In this presentation - starting from experience gained from extending the lifetime of the of the U1 metro viaduct in Berlin - we discuss end-of-life decision making in offshore wind. We focus particularly on issues concerning substructures and highlight existing challenges and opprtunities in research and development.
Information on the condition and reliability of an offshore jacket structure provided by a vibration-based structural health monitoring system can guide decisions on inspection and maintenance. When selecting the sensor setup, the designer of the monitoring system must assess its overall benefit compared to its costs before installation. The potential benefit of continuously monitoring the dynamic response of a jacket structure can be formally quantified through a value of information analysis from Bayesian decision theory. In this contribution, we present a framework for optimizing the placement of vibration sensors on offshore jacket structures by maximizing the value of information of the monitoring system. To solve the resulting discrete optimization problem, we adapt a genetic algorithm. The framework is demonstrated in a numerical example considering a redundant jacket-type steel frame. The numerical study shows that monitoring the vibration response of the frame is beneficial. Good sensor setups consist of relatively few sensors located towards the upper part of the
frame. The adapted genetic algorithm performs similarly well as established sequential sensor placement algorithms and holds substantial promise for application to real jacket structures.
A digital structural integrity management of offshore structures enables an optimized planning of inspections and repairs with risk-based methods. In a risk-based approach, the inspection and repair strategy that minimizes the expected lifetime costs consisting of the expected inspection, repair and failure costs is determined. In addition to inspections, information on the structural condition can be continuously obtained by monitoring the vibration response of the structural system. Changes in the vibration characteristics quantified in terms of modal properties can be an indication of structural damage. In risk-based inspection and repair planning, the effect of monitoring results is determined via Bayesian updating of the structural condition and reliability. This information should be applied to inform decisions on inspections and may result in a reduced inspection effort. The benefit of continuously monitoring the structural health can be quantified in terms of the value of information, which corresponds to the difference between the expected lifetime costs with and without monitoring. In this work, we demonstrate in a numerical example how an optimized sensor placement for a vibration-based structural health monitoring system can be determined by maximizing the value of information.
A digital structural integrity management of offshore structures enables an optimized planning of inspections and repairs with risk-based methods. In a risk-based approach, the inspection and repair strategy that minimizes the expected lifetime costs consisting of the expected inspection, repair and failure costs is determined. In addition to inspections, information on the structural condition can be continuously obtained by monitoring the vibration response of the structural system. Changes in the vibration characteristics quantified in terms of modal properties can be an indication of structural damage. In risk-based inspection and repair planning, the effect of monitoring results is determined via Bayesian updating of the structural condition and reliability. This information should be applied to inform decisions on inspections and may result in a reduced inspection effort. The benefit of continuously monitoring the structural health can be quantified in terms of the value of information, which corresponds to the difference between the expected lifetime costs with and without monitoring. In this work, we demonstrate in a numerical example how an optimized sensor placement for a vibration-based structural health monitoring system can be determined by maximizing the value of information.
This paper presents an erosion interpretation of cohesive granular materials stressed by an impinging jet based on the results of a micromechanical simulation model. The numerical techniques are briefly described, relying on a two-dimensional Lattice Boltzmann Method coupled with a Discrete Element Methods including a simple model of solid intergranular cohesion.
These are then used to perform a parametric study of a planar jet in the laminar regime impinging the surface of granular samples with different degrees of cohesive strength. The results show the pertinence of using a generalized form of the Shields criterion for the quantification of the erosion threshold, which is valid for cohesionless samples, through empirical calibration, and also for cohesive ones. Furthermore, the scouring kinetics are analysed here from the perspective of a selfsimilar expansion of the eroded crater leading to the identification of a characteristic erosion time and the quantification of the classical erosion coefficient. However, the presented results also challenge the postulate of a local erosion law including erodibility parameters as intrinsic material properties. The paper then reviews the main limitations of the simulation and current interpretation models, and discusses the potential causes for the observed discrepancies, questioning the pertinence of using time-averaged macroscopic relations to correctly describe soil erosion. The paper concludes addressing this question with a complementary study of the presented simulations re-assessed at the particle-scale. The resulting local critical shear stress of single grains reveals a very wide dispersion of the data but nevertheless appears to confirm the general macroscopic trend derived for the cohesionless samples, while the introduction of cohesion implies a significant but systematic quantitative deviation between the microscopic and macroscopic estimates. Nevertheless, the micro data still shows consistently that the critical shear stress does actually vary approximately in linear proportion of the adhesive force.
Dieser Kurzvortragg erläutert nichtlineare Phänomene die angesichts der aktuell wachsenden Dimensionen von Monopfahlgründungen für Offshorewindenergieanlagen zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnen. Insbesondere wird dabei auf das Pfahlfußbeulen sowie das Schalenbeulen des bereits installierten Pfahles eingegangen.
The governing load bearing mechanism of multi-pile foundations is often the shaft friction. Under cyclic loading the soil particles next to the foundation rearrange and tend to compact leading to a decrease of the surrounding normal stress. The reduction of the normal stress leads to a lower threshold for shear stress (friction fatigue), which results in a degraded shaft bearing capacity. The common interface models used for numerical simulations (e.g. Mohr-Coulomb) are not able to capture such behavior. This work aims to develop an interface material model that incorporates such features of the contact behavior at the soil-structure interface.
The erosion phenomena is the main cause of the most serious incidents observed on earthen hydraulic structures such as dams and dikes. Thus, there is a real need to explore in depth and understand the mechanisms at work in such complex erosional processes for preventing similar risks.
The aim of this study is to provide a micromechanical insight into the mechanisms taking place during the erosion of a cohesive granular material driven by a fluid flow, the objectives are summarized as follows:
Perform numerical erosion tests.
Parallelization of the code (Gpu).
Extensive parametric analysis => rely micro parameters (eg. Cohesion) to macro parameters (eg. Soil erodibility, mechanical strengths).
In the last three decades, the vibrations of many floors and bridges have been measured. The contribution shows some evaluation methods, experimental results and some modelling and theoretical results. Simple evaluation methods have been developed for single and coupled floors. Two coupled beams have been measured in good agreement with the theory. A more complex coupling model has been found for a large wooden floor in a castle consisting of six floor bays which correlates well with the measurements. Damaged and intact poles have been tested by their natural frequencies and damping values, and a fair correlation between the degree of damage and the shift of the frequency. Road bridges have been analysed in detail and some examples are presented. Railway bridges and trains are studied for resonant excitation. The risk of resonance can be estimated in frequency domain by using axle-sequence spectra of the train and the natural frequencies of the bridge. A measurement example shows the amplification, but even stronger the cancellation of the subsequent axle responses. Several high-speed trains and freight trains have been analysed for their potential resonance amplification.
In the last three decades, the vibrations of many floors and bridges have been measured. The contribution shows some evaluation methods, experimental results and some modelling and theoretical results. Simple evaluation methods have been developed for single and coupled floors. Two coupled beams have been measured in good agreement with the theory. A more complex coupling model has been found for a large wooden floor in a castle consisting of six floor bays which correlates well with the measurements. Damaged and intact poles have been tested by their natural frequencies and damping values, and a fair correlation between the degree of damage and the shift of the frequency. Road bridges have been analysed in detail and some examples are presented. Railway bridges and trains are studied for resonant excitation. The risk of resonance can be estimated in frequency domain by using axle-sequence spectra of the train and the natural frequencies of the bridge. A measurement example shows the amplification, but even stronger the cancellation of the subsequent axle responses. Several high-speed trains and freight trains have been analysed for their potential resonance amplification.
Quantifying uncertainties in subsurface properties and stratigraphy can lead to better understanding of the ground conditions and enhance the design and assessment of geotechnical structures. Several studies have utilized Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data and employed Bayesian and Machine Learning methods to quantify the geological uncertainty, based on the Robertson’s soil classification charts and the Soil Behaviour Type Index (Ic). The incorporation of borehole data can reduce the stratigraphic uncertainty. Significant challenges can arise, however, mainly due to the intrinsic differences between field and laboratory-based soil classification systems, which can potentially lead to inconsistent soil classification. To this end, this study proposes a multivariate Gaussian Process model that utilizes site-specific data and: i) jointly models multiple categorical (USCS labels) and continuous (Ic) variables, ii) learns a (shared) spatial correlation structure and the betweenoutputs covariance, and iii) produces two types of dependent classification outputs. The results indicate that the integration of geotechnical and geological information into a unified model can provide more reliable predictions of the subsurface stratification, by allowing simultaneous interpretation of USCS and Ic profiles. Importantly, the model demonstrates the potential to integrate multiple variables of different types, aiming to contribute to the development of a methodology for joint modeling of geotechnical, geological and geophysical data.
Almost all building materials in civil engineering have an open porosity and interact with or are affected by the environmental conditions. Structures might suffer from effects such as moisture adsorption, carbonation, corrosion, penetration of salt ions and chemical substances, etc. In the hygroscopic range, these processes are mostly driven by diffusion. Due to the confinement of small pores (less than1 µm), the Knudsen effect reduces the molecular diffusion. This reduction can become more significant in case of temporal changing pore systems because of physisorption of water vapor, carbonation, or chemisorption.
In this study, unstabilised earth blocks and earth masonry are investigated. In a first step, the pore size distribution of the blocks is measured and sorption isotherms are recorded in experiments. Besides the ordinary physisorption, the involved clay minerals undergo swelling or shrinking due to chemisorption. The following two effects must be considered: first, the reduction of the available pore space by the adsorbed water layer. For this, the Hillerborg sorption theory is used, which is a combination of the well-known Brunauer-Emmett-Teller sorption theory and the Kelvin equation. This allows the computation of adsorbed water layers even in curved pore geometries. Second, the variation of the initial pore size distribution due to chemisorption needs to be modelled. Based on these two models, the effective diffusion coefficient can be predicted. For validation, arrays of relative humidity sensors were embedded into a free-standing earth masonry wall. This monitoring was carried out over more than a year to have a broad variety of environmental conditions and was located in Berlin, Germany.
The prediction of the effective diffusion coefficient can also be transferred to other processes and allows the investigation of materials having temporarily changing pore systems. Examples are the carbonation of cementitious materials, alkali silica reaction, calcium leaching of long-lasting structures, etc. These effects are prominent in the meso-pore range and might significantly alter the effective diffusion coefficient.
Almost all building materials in civil engineering have an open porosity and interact with or are affected by the environmental conditions. Structures might suffer from effects such as moisture adsorption, carbonation, corrosion, penetration of salt ions and chemical substances, etc. In the hygroscopic range, these processes are mostly driven by diffusion. Due to the confinement of small pores (< 1 µm), the Knudsen effect reduces the molecular diffusion. This reduction can become more significant in case of temporal changing pore systems because of physisorption of water vapor, carbonation, or chemisorption.
In this study, unstabilised earth blocks and earth masonry are investigated. In a first step, the pore size distribution of the blocks is measured and sorption isotherms are recorded in experiments. Besides the ordinary physisorption, the involved clay minerals undergo swelling or shrinking due to chemisorption. The following two effects must be considered: first, the reduction of the available pore space by the adsorbed water layer. For this, the Hillerborg sorption theory is used, which is a combination of the well-known Brunauer-Emmett-Teller sorption theory and the Kelvin equation. This allows the computation of adsorbed water layers even in curved pore geometries. Second, the variation of the initial pore size distribution due to chemisorption needs to be modelled. Based on these two models, the effective diffusion coefficient can be predicted. For validation, arrays of relative humidity sensors were embedded into a free-standing earth masonry wall. This monitoring was carried out over more than a year to have a broad variety of environmental conditions and was located in Berlin, Germany.
The prediction of the effective diffusion coefficient can also be transferred to other processes and allows the investigation of materials having temporarily changing pore systems. Examples are the carbonation of cementitious materials, alkali silica reaction, calcium leaching of long-lasting structures, etc. This effect becomes most prominent in the meso-pore range and might alter the effective diffusion coefficient by more than 100 %.
Almost all building materials in civil engineering have an open porosity and interact with or are affected by the environmental conditions. Structures might suffer from effects such as moisture adsorption, carbonation, corrosion, penetration of salt ions and chemical substances, etc. In the hygroscopic range, these processes are mostly driven by diffusion. Due to the confinement of small pores ( 1 m), the Knudsen effect reduces the molecular diffusion. This reduction can become more significant in case of temporal changing pore systems because of physisorption of water vapor, carbonation, or chemisorption.
In this study, unstabilised earth blocks and earth masonry are investigated. In a first step, the pore size distribution of the blocks is measured and sorption isotherms are recorded in experiments. Besides the ordinary physisorption, the involved clay minerals undergo swelling or shrinking due to chemisorption. The following two effects must be considered: first, the reduction of the available pore space by the adsorbed water layer. For this, the Hillerborg sorption theory is used, which is a combination of the well-known Brunauer-Emmett-Teller sorption theory and the Kelvin equation. This allows the computation of adsorbed water layers even in curved pore geometries. Second, the variation of the initial pore size distribution due to chemisorption needs to be modelled. Based on these two models, the effective diffusion coefficient can be predicted. For validation, arrays of relative humidity sensors were embedded into a free-standing earth masonry wall. This monitoring was carried out over more than a year to have a broad variety of environmental conditions and was located in Berlin, Germany.
The prediction of the effective diffusion coefficient can also be transferred to other processes and allows the investigation of materials having temporarily changing pore systems. Examples are the carbonation of cementitious materials, alkali silica reaction, calcium leaching of long-lasting structures, etc. This effect becomes most prominent in the meso-pore range and might alter the effective diffusion coefficient by more than 100 %.
The structural performance of many geotechnical systems (e.g. axially-loaded pile foundations), depends on the shearing resistance at the soil interface, which may govern the load bearing capacity of the foundation. Experimental investigations have shown that this interaction is mainly localised within a narrow shear band next to the structure. Under cyclic loading, a contraction of the soil at the interface may arise (net volume loss), possibly leading to a stress relaxation and thus to a reduction of the load bearing capacity (the so-called friction fatigue). Based on the constitutive similarities between soil continua and interfaces, we propose here the adaption of a Generalized Plasticity model for sandy soils for the numerical analysis of interface problems. In this contribution, the results of an experimental campaign for the parameter calibration of the constitutive model are presented. The tests have been conducted with a ring shear device involving different normal stresses, roughness of the steel plates as well as cyclic loading. The new modelling approach shows promising results and has the additional practical advantage that the interface zone and the soil continuum can both be described with the same constitutive model in general boundary value problems.
The structural performance of many geotechnical systems (e.g. axially-loaded pile foundations), depends on the shearing resistance at the soil interface, which may govern the load bearing capacity of the foundation. Experimental investigations have shown that this interaction is mainly localised within a narrow shear band next to the structure. Under cyclic loading, a contraction of the soil at the interface may arise (net volume loss), possibly leading to a stress relaxation and thus to a reduction of the load bearing capacity (the so-called friction fatigue). Based on the constitutive similarities between soil continua and interfaces, we propose here the adaption of a Generalized Plasticity model for sandy soils for the numerical analysis of interface problems. In this contribution, the results of an experimental campaign for the parameter calibration of the constitutive model are presented. The tests have been conducted with a ring shear device involving different normal stresses, roughness of the steel plates as well as cyclic loading. The new modelling approach shows promising results and has the additional practical advantage that the interface zone and the soil continuum can both be described with the same constitutive model in general boundary value problems.
The present work deals with the recently confirmed widening of the weld pool interface, known as a bulging effect, and its relevance in high power laser beam welding. A combined experimental and numerical approach is utilized to study the influence of the bulge on the hot cracking formation and the transport of alloying elements in the molten pool. A technique using a quartz glass, a direct-diode laser illumination, a high-speed camera, and two thermal imaging cameras is applied to visualize the weld pool geometry in the longitudinal section. The study examines the relevance of the bulging effect on both, partial and complete penetration, as well as for different sheet thicknesses ranging from 8 mm to 25 mm. The numerical analysis shows that the formation of a bulge region is highly dependent on the penetration depth and occurs above 10 mm penetration depth. The location of the bulge correlates strongly with the cracking location. The obtained experimental and numerical results reveal that the bulging effect increases the hot cracking susceptibility and limits the transfer of alloying elements from the top of the weld pool to the weld root.
The EU member states have set out ambitious long-term goals for deploying offshore wind energy. The installed offshore wind capacity is set to increase from 14.6 GW in 2021 to around 320 GW in 2050. This signifies the role of offshore wind energy as a major contributor to reaching the EU’s climate and energy goals. To ensure that the defined targets are met, a significant number of new wind farms has to be installed and existing wind farms reaching the end of their planned life need to be reused efficiently. Some of the relevant reuse alternatives are lifetime extension, repowering based on the existing support structures and repowering with new turbines.
As a basis of the decision-making regarding the reuse of existing offshore wind farm, the expected utility of each relevant option should be determined based on the associated expected rewards, costs and risks. The optimal concept maximizes the utility of the decision-maker and fulfills the existing constraints and requirements. To facilitate such a quantitative decision-making, models and methods have to be developed. In particular, models are required that enable predictions of (a) the condition and performance of the turbines and support structures and (b) the renumeration, costs and consequences of adverse events. These predictions have to consider (a) the governing uncertainties, (b) the available information from the planning, construction, installation and operating phase, (b) potential repair, retrofitting and strengthening schemes and (c) possible monitoring, inspection and maintenance regimes for the future operating phase.
Over the past years, several models, methods and tools have been developed at the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) to support the structural integrity management of offshore wind turbine substructures. These include:
(a) a prototype for reliability-based, system-wide, adaptive planning of inspections of welded steel structures in offshore wind farms,
(b) a method for monitoring and risk-informed optimization of inspection and maintenance strategies for jacket structures subject to fatigue, and
(c) a probabilistic cost model of inspection and maintenance of welded steel structures in offshore wind farms.
This contribution provides an overview on these works and discusses how they can be adapted and extended to support the decision-making regarding lifetime extensions and repowering of offshore wind farms.
This article presents a solid cohesion model for the simulation of bonded granular assemblies in the frame of 3D discrete element approaches (DEM). A simple viscoplastic cohesion model for 2D geometries is extended to 3D conditions, while its yield criterion is generalized as a hyper-surface in the space of bond solicitations to include torsional moments. The model is then calibrated using experimental results of uniaxial traction at both the microscopic and macroscopic scales with an artificial granular cohesive soil. The paper finally presents some simulated results on the macromechanical sample traction application and briefly discusses the model's current limitations and promising prospects for subsequent works.
This article presents a solid cohesion model for the simulation of bonded granular assemblies in the frame of 3D discrete element approaches (DEM). A simple viscoplastic cohesion model for 2D geometries is extended to 3D conditions, while its yield criterion is generalized as a hyper-surface in the space of bond solicitations to include torsional moments. The model is then calibrated using experimental results of uniaxial traction at both the microscopic and macroscopic scales with an artificial granular cohesive soil. The paper finally presents some simulated results on the macromechanical sample traction application and briefly discusses the model's current limitations and promising prospects for subsequent works.
Messen im Bauwesen 2018
(2018)
Der Tagungsband zur 10. Fachtagung „Messen im Bauwesen“ enthält die Beiträge der Autoren zum diesjährigen Thema „Messtechnische Anwendungen und deren Einbindung in digitale Bauwerksmodelle“ enthält.
Building Information Modeling (BIM) ermöglicht einen integralen Entwurfs-, Ausführungs- und Instandsetzungsprozess und verspricht Bauwerke von höherer Qualität bei niedrigeren Kosten und kürzeren Projektlaufzeiten. Was BIM aber im konkreten Anwendungsfall bedeutet, ist generell noch Teil eines umfassenden Diskussionsprozesses, insbesondere für die Integration der Ergebnisse von Bauwerksmessungen aus der Ausführungs- und Betriebsphase.
Die diesjährige Ausgabe der Tagung „Messen im Bauwesen“ befasst sich schwerpunktmäßig mit verschiedenen Aspekten des BIM in der bestehenden Baupraxis, beschreibt Technologien hinter BIM und zeigt die vielfältigen Möglichkeiten eines Einsatzes von Messverfahren sowohl in der Bauausführung als auch beim Lebenszyklusmanagement von Bauwerken auf. Auf Basis dieser Schwerpunktsetzung möchten wir wieder aus der Sicht des Bauingenieurs und des Geodäten von Praxisbeispielen aus Hoch- und Tiefbau berichten.
Die Vorträge sind zusammengestellt mit Blick insbesondere auf Bau- und Vermessungsingenieure in Ingenieurbüros sowie der Verwaltung in den Bereichen Planung, Ausführung und Betrieb von Infrastrukturbauwerken.
This talk provides a brief introduction on general engineering aspects of offshore wind energy production. Some geomechanical issues for the foundation of OWTs into the seabed are introduced, while the results from experimental investigations and coupled computational analysis are discussed.
In the second part of the seminar, the hydromechanical Wave–Tower interaction is firstly discussed. Then, some general aspects of the windfarm aerodynamics are introduced. On the one hand, some modelling possibilities for the wake analysis of single turbines and turbine groups are discussed. And on the other hand the relevance of such analyses for a proper windfarm layout optimization is pointed out.
Concerning the geomechanical issues the talk shows that: i) The pile’s bearing capacity can degrade under cyclic loading (waves, wind, …). ii) The time effects can be relevant: Capacity improvement can be substantial, but also fragile. iii) There are cyclic PWP effects: Cyclic interaction with pore water may lead to soil softening and an uncoupled analysis (current design practice) is potentially unsafe.
And concerning the hydromechanical and aerodynamical design considerations, this seminar shows that: i) Numerical analysis of turbine’s interaction with wind/waves is useful and affordable. ii) Simplified models can provide insight into windfarm aerodynamics. iii) Turbulent wake analysis is very relevant for the windfarm layout.
Measured train passages and hammer impacts in combination with track-soil calculation have been successfully used for the detection of damaged slab tracks. This approach is now extended to intact slab and ballast tracks. The vibrations of many tracks have been measured at several levels from rail, sleeper, track plate, base plate, base layer to the subsoil by velocity or acceleration sensors. The time histories have to be integrated once or twice to get the displacements. The displacement signals include an arbitrary time-dependent shift which must be eliminated or respected in the interpretation. On the other hand, the calculation of slab and ballast tracks have been done in frequency-wavenumber domain. The displacements along the track and the frequency-dependent compliance transfer functions can be calculated. The latter can be compared with the results of the hammer impacts on the track. The deformation of the track can be transformed to time histories for a whole train and compared to the measured train passages. Many slab (and ballast) tracks have been measured at different sites. The displacements of the tracks are presented, and the following parameters have been analysed in the measurement results: slab track vs. ballast track, different types of slab tracks, damaged slab tracks, different trains, switches at different measuring points, an elastic layer, the mortar layer, different soils at different places. The soil should have the dominant influence on the track-plate displacements. Slab and ballast track yield also big differences in maximum displacement and width of deformation. Some of the preceding aspects will be analysed in comparison of measurement and theory.
Measured train passages and hammer impacts in combination with track-soil calculation have been successfully used for the detection of damaged slab tracks. This approach is now extended to intact slab and ballast tracks. The vibrations of many tracks have been measured at several levels from rail, sleeper, track plate, base plate, base layer to the subsoil by velocity or acceleration sensors. The time histories have to be integrated once or twice to get the displacements. The displacement signals include an arbitrary time-dependent shift which must be eliminated or respected in the interpretation. On the other hand, the calculation of slab and ballast tracks have been done in frequency-wavenumber domain. The displacements along the track and the frequency-dependent compliance transfer functions can be calculated. The latter can be compared with the results of the hammer impacts on the track. The deformation of the track can be transformed to time histories for a whole train and compared to the measured train passages. Many slab (and ballast) tracks have been measured at different sites. The displacements of the tracks are presented, and the following parameters have been analysed in the measurement results: slab track vs. ballast track, different types of slab tracks, damaged slab tracks, different trains, switches at different measuring points, an elastic layer, the mortar layer, different soils at different places. The soil should have the dominant influence on the track-plate displacements. Slab and ballast track yield also big differences in maximum displacement and width of deformation. Some of the preceding aspects will be analysed in comparison of measurement and theory.
Vibration measurements have many causes and many technical and natural sources. Problems can sometimes be solved by short-term measurements, but in many cases, a long-term measurement is necessary. In long-term measurements of days, weeks, months and even years, it is easy to collect a huge quantity of raw data, but at the end, the post-processing of these data can be exhausting (for example one-year vibration data of a wind energy tower). A software has been developed which con-sists of measuring and evaluation routines where the measuring routines can operate different meas-uring systems and different measuring cards. The main advantage of this software is the fact that the interesting evaluations can be integrated in the measuring process so that the characteristics of the vibration can be extracted without storing all the raw data. Only important time segments are stored, for example train passages. The overall concept of the software and the main evaluation routines will be described in some details. Examples of our measurement experience will illustrate the capabilities of the software. 1) Surveying construction work in nearby sensitive buildings (for example an old wind tunnel), including a stable alarm system and meaningful vibration limits. 2) Prediction of train-induced vibration for a planned building to prevent annoyance and to improve the building design. 3) Modal analysis and long term measurements of several single- or multi-span, concrete or steel bridges 4) Modal and wave analysis of coupled floors in a historical building (“Neues Palais” at Potsdam). 5) Soil properties of various measurement sites (different routines to evaluate the dispersion). Moreover, from many projects, amplitudes, frequencies, and attenuation laws have been collected and analysed for the different sources such as vibratory or impact pile driving and ground compaction, demolition work with different machines, blasting in quarries and in tunnel works, bomb and mine clearing.
Vibration measurements have many causes and many technical and natural sources. Problems can sometimes be solved by short-term measurements, but in many cases, a long-term measurement is necessary. In long-term measurements of days, weeks, months and even years, it is easy to collect a huge quantity of raw data, but at the end, the post-processing of these data can be exhausting (for example one-year vibration data of a wind energy tower). A software has been developed which con-sists of measuring and evaluation routines where the measuring routines can operate different meas-uring systems and different measuring cards. The main advantage of this software is the fact that the interesting evaluations can be integrated in the measuring process so that the characteristics of the vibration can be extracted without storing all the raw data. Only important time segments are stored, for example train passages. The overall concept of the software and the main evaluation routines will be described in some details. Examples of our measurement experience will illustrate the capabilities of the software. 1) Surveying construction work in nearby sensitive buildings (for example an old wind tunnel), including a stable alarm system and meaningful vibration limits. 2) Prediction of train-induced vibration for a planned building to prevent annoyance and to improve the building design. 3) Modal analysis and long term measurements of several single- or multi-span, concrete or steel bridges 4) Modal and wave analysis of coupled floors in a historical building (“Neues Palais” at Potsdam). 5) Soil properties of various measurement sites (different routines to evaluate the dispersion). Moreover, from many projects, amplitudes, frequencies, and attenuation laws have been collected and analysed for the different sources such as vibratory or impact pile driving and ground compaction, demolition work with different machines, blasting in quarries and in tunnel works, bomb and mine clearing.
block and mortar types is analysed with particular regard to the influence of varying relative humidity. The uniaxial compressive strength and deformation characteristics of unstabilised earth blocks and mortars as well as of unstabilised earth block masonry are studied in detail and compared to conventional masonry to evaluate whether the structural design can be made accordingly. An increase of 30 % points in relative humidity leads to a reduction of the masonry´s compressive strength between 33 % and 35 % whereas the Young´s modulus is reduced by 24–29 %. However, the ratio between the Young´s modulus and the characteristic compressive strength of earth block masonry ranges between E33/fk = 283–583 but is largely independent of the relative humidity. The results show that the mechanical properties of the investigated unstabilised earth block masonry are sufficient for load-bearing structures, yielding a masonry compressive strength between 2.3 MPa and 3.7 MPa throughout the range of moisture contents
investigated. In general, the design concept of conventional masonry can be adapted for unstabilised earth masonry provided that the rather low Young´s modulus as well as the moisture dependence of both, compressive strength and Young´s modulus, are sufficiently taken into
account.
Die Infrastruktursysteme der Industriestaaten erfordern heute und in Zukunft ein effizientes Management bei alternder Bausubstanz, steigenden Lasten und gleichbleibend hohem Sicherheitsniveau. Digitale Technologien bieten ein großes Potenzial zur Bewältigung der aktuellen und künftigen Herausforderungen im Infrastrukturmanagement. Im BMBF-geförderten Projekt Bewertung alternder Infrastrukturbauwerke mit digitalen Technologien (AISTEC) wird untersucht, wie unterschiedliche Technologien und deren Verknüpfung gewinnbringend eingesetzt werden können. Am Beispiel der Maintalbrücke Gemünden werden ein sensorbasiertes Bauwerksmonitoring, bildbasierte Inspektion mit durch Kameras ausgestatteten Drohnen (UAS) und die Verknüpfung digitaler Bauwerksmodelle umgesetzt. Die aufgenommenen Bilder dienen u. a. als Grundlage für spätere visuelle Anomaliedetektionen und eine 3D-Rekonstruktion, welche wiederum für die Kalibrierung und Aktualisierung digitaler Tragwerksmodelle genutzt werden. Kontinuierlich erfasste Sensordaten werden ebenfalls zur Kalibrierung und Aktualisierung der Tragwerksmodelle herangezogen. Diese Modelle werden als Grundlage für Anomaliedetektionen und perspektivisch zur Umsetzung von Konzepten der prädiktiven Instandhaltung verwendet. Belastungsfahrten und historische Daten dienen in diesem Beitrag der Validierung von kalibrierten Tragwerksmodellen.
Classic non-destructive fatigue crack detection methods reveal the state of the fatigue damage evolution at the moment of application, generally not under operational conditions. The here introduced crack luminescence method realizes a clear visibility of the occurred and growing crack in loaded components during operation. Different established experiments show that due to the sensitive coating a crack Formation can be detected even in early stage under the premise the crack reached the surface. The coating consists of two layers with different properties and functions. The bottom layer emits light as fluorescence under UV radiation. The top layer covers the fluorescing one and prevents the emitting of light in case of no damage at the surface. In case of surface crack occurrence, the luminescent light is clearly noticeable by visual observations and also by standard camera equipment which makes automated crack detection possible as well. It is expected that crack luminescence can increase structural safety as well as reduce costs and time for inspections and preventive maintenance.
Grouts are particularly favoured in rehabilitation of structures due to penetrability and convenience of application. Grouts for repair applications typically require high-performance properties such as rapid strength development and superior shrinkage characteristics. Sometimes industrial by-products referred as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are used with neat cement due to their capabilities to provide binding properties at delayed stage. Micro silica, fly ash and metakaolin are such SCMs, those can modify and improve properties of cement products. This study aims at investigating long-term mass loss and linear shrinkage along with long-term compressive and flexural strength for grouts produced from ultrafine cement and SCMs. A series of mixtures were formulated to observe the effect of SCMs on these grout properties. Properties were determined after 365 days of curing at 23 °C and 55% relative humidity. The effect of SCMs on the properties are characterised by statistical models. Response surfaces were constructed to quantify these properties in relation to SCMs replacement. The results suggested that shrinkage was reduced by metakaolin, while micro silica and fly ash had positive effects on compressive and flexural strength, respectively.
Grouts have numerous applications in construction industry such as joint sealing, structural repair, and connections in precast elements. They are particularly favoured in rehabilitation of structures due to penetrability and convenience of application. Grouts for repair applications typically require high-performance properties such as rapid strength development and superior shrinkage characteristics. Sometimes industrial by-products referred as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are used with neat cement due to their capabilities to provide binding properties at delayed stage. Micro silica, fly ash and metakaolin are such SCMs, those can modify and improve properties of cement products. This study aims at investigating long-term mass loss and linear shrinkage along with long-term compressive and flexural strength for grouts produced from ultrafine cement and SCMs. A series of mixtures were formulated to observe the effect of SCMs on these grout properties. Properties were determined after 365 days of curing at 23oC and 55% relative humidity. The effect of SCMs on the properties are characterised by statistical models. Response surfaces were constructed to quantify these properties in relation to SCMs replacement. The results suggested that shrinkage was reduced by metakaolin, while micro silica and fly ash had positive effects on compressive and flexural strength, respectively.
The Stochastic Dynamic Damage Locating Vector (SDDLV) approach is a vibration-based damage localization method based on both a finite element model of a structure and modal parameters estimated
from output-only measurements in the damage and reference states. A statistical version of the Approach takes into account the inherent uncertainty due to noisy measurement data. In this paper, the effect of temperature fluctuations on the performance of the method is analyzed in a model-based approach using a finite element model with temperature dependent parameters. Robust damage localization is carried out by rejecting the temperature influence on the identified modal parameters in the damaged state. The algorithm is illustrated on a simulated structure.
The Stochastic Dynamic Damage Locating Vector (SDDLV) approach is a vibration-based damage localization method based on both a finite element model of a structure and modal parameters estimated from output-only measurements in the damage and reference states. A statistical version of the Approach takes into account the inherent uncertainty due to noisy measurement data. In this paper, the effect of temperature fluctuations on the performance of the method is analyzed in a model-based approach using a finite element model with temperature dependent parameters. Robust damage localization is carried out by rejecting the temperature influence on the identified modal parameters in the damaged state. The algorithm is illustrated on a simulated structure.
The research project Verification of Buckling Assessment and Behaviour in Large Monopiles (VERBATIM) focuses on challenges arising due to the ongoing increase of dimensions of monopiles as foundation for offshore wind turbines. This project is focused on two main topics:
- Monopile tip buckling during pile installation
- Local buckling of embedded piles during operation
It is known from previous investigations and experiences in practice that large deformations of a monopile tip during offshore installation works can occur. These large deformations initiated at the tip of the monopile are commonly referred to as “pile tip buckling”. Own research focuses on optimising monopile dimensions to reduce the cost of monopile foundations for offshore wind turbines while preventing pile tip buckling.
Buckling of embedded cylindrical shells for offshore structures is a common engineering task. Structures can be analysed using standard software and have been done so in recent studies e.g., Gottschalk. However, the trend towards larger monopile and optimised structures has led to a fundamental need for better and verified models. A main challenge is the submodelling of the structure-soil-interaction. Developing such complex models is one main goal of the VERBATIM project.
For both main topics model tests were performed at the laboratories of BAM and TU Berlin. These experimental results were used to verify related numerical models and simulations.
Wir zeigen, dass bei homogenen ausgeprägt sandartigen Böden mit statistisch ermittelten Korrelationen die dynamischen Bodensteifigkeiten mit einer Genauigkeit abgeschätzt werden können, die mit der Ungenauigkeit der seismischen Verfahren übereinstimmt. Mit zunehmenden Feinkornanteil werden die Unsicherheiten der statistischen Korrelationen größer. Bei stark überkonsolidierten glazialen Böden sollte von der Anwendung empirischer Korrelationen Abstand genommen werden.
Kontinuierliche sensorbasierte Bauwerksmessungen leisten einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Sicherheit von Verkehrsbauwerken. Hierzu werden im Vorhaben AISTEC Referenzbauwerke und Referenzverfahren untersucht mit Schwerpunkt auf den Einfluss klimatischer Bedingungen. Der Vortrag stellt den aktuellen Projektstand des FB 7.2 vor.
The structural integrity of outer reinforced concrete (RC) containments of nuclear power plants provides an essential shield against external hazards. If this containment is damaged by an impact event, such as an aircraft crash, the question arises to which degree the reinforced concrete containment still has its protective capability. This concerns both purely structural protection and protection against liquids penetrating the interior of the containment. Due to the dimensions of the containment structures, it is difficult to perform real scale impact experiments, so in the past decades plate geometries at medium scale have been used for investigations. Detailed investigations on the structural behaviour of RC members or RC plates subjected to impact loading have already been presented in Just et al., Hering, Hering et al., Bracklow et al., Hille et al. and Nerger et al.
The following investigations deal with the single and multiple impact event (first hard impact and/or subsequent soft impact) on a RC specimen, which provides the basis for further investigations. A description of the test setup and the test procedure as well as a presentation of the test results from the impact tests are provided.
Furthermore, the experimental program is presented, which the damaged RC specimens are to undergo to deal with the question of how much the impact-damaged RC structure has become permeable to liquid media, such as water and kerosene, depending on the intensity of the impact. The aim of these following investigations is to develop a test setup that can be applied to investigate the liquid penetration behaviour (LPB) of small, medium, and large-scale RC members.
In addition to the liquid penetration experiments, the damaged specimens are to be examined by planar tomography to obtain the damage inside the specimen. The combination of damaging event, fluid penetration behaviour and tomography should enable a comprehensive understanding of the damage to the RC specimen.
The authors are currently investigating the possibility to apply compaction grouting for offshore pile foundations (Jacket piles as well as monopiles) as a possible retrofitting technique for an optimised foundation concept. In this research project, we are developing a design approach aiming to predict the ideal amount and properties of a grout for a specific soil situation and desired improvement of pile bearing capacity after Installation and during service time. Both numerical and experimental tests have been carried out to investigate the injection process during which a highly viscous grout is injected into the soil under high pressure to displace and compact the surrounding soil without fracturing it. The implicit Material Point Method (MPM) based on a mixed formulation is the numerical technique chosen to deal with the expected large deformations and the arbitrary shape of the developing grout bulb. The usage of MPM prevents both the need of remeshing and the numerical instability induced by extensive mesh distortion. For validation with experimental results, we have constructed a testing chamber with one transparent sidewall. This chamber enables us to observe the injection process directly at the transparent vertical window and to measure the in-plane soil displacements and strains by means of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique.
The results already reveal the interrelation of soil and grout properties for a successful usage of this common ground improvement technique.
The authors are currently investigating the possibility to apply compaction grouting for offshore pile foundations (Jacket piles as well as monopiles) as a possible retrofitting technique for an optimised foundation concept. In this research project, we are developing a design approach aiming to predict the ideal amount and properties of a grout for a specific soil situation and desired improvement of pile bearing capacity after Installation and during service time. Both numerical and experimental tests have been carried out to investigate the injection process during which a highly viscous grout is injected into the soil under high pressure to displace and compact the surrounding soil without fracturing it. The implicit Material Point Method (MPM) based on a mixed formulation is the numerical technique chosen to deal with the expected large deformations and the arbitrary shape of the developing grout bulb. The usage of MPM prevents both the need of remeshing and the numerical instability induced by extensive mesh distortion. For validation with experimental results, we have constructed a testing chamber with one transparent sidewall. This chamber enables us to observe the injection process directly at the transparent vertical window and to measure the in-plane soil displacements and strains by means of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique.
The results already reveal the interrelation of soil and grout properties for a successful usage of this common ground improvement technique.
Innovative Design- und Fertigungsstrategien zur Steigerung der Leichtbaupotenziale im Stahlbau
(2022)
Ziel des Verbundvorhabens „SmartWeld“ ist es, für die schweißtechnische Fertigung von Stahlbaustrukturen exemplarisch am Beispiel von Hohlprofilknoten, welche als designrelevante Elemente von Gründungsstrukturen für Offshore-Windenergieanlagen (OWEA) einsetzbar sind, die Möglichkeiten des Leichtbaus unter konsequenter Digitalisierung der Fertigungskette aufzuzeigen, um einerseits die Ressourceneffizienz zu forcieren und gleichzeitig wettbewerbsfähige Fertigungsstrategien aufzuzeigen.
Innerhalb von „SmartWeld“ werden daher die Möglichkeiten einer wirtschaftlichen Fertigung von Leichtbau-Gründungsstrukturen am Beispiel aufgelöster Tragstrukturen (Jackets) aufgezeigt. Eine lastgerechte Auslegung der Schweißverbindungen nach bionischen Prinzipien ermöglicht, weitere Einsparpotenziale an Ressourcen bei gleichzeitiger Erhöhung der Lebensdauer zu erschließen.
Die Ausnutzung konstruktiver Prinzipien des Leichtbaus zur Erzeugung innovativer und ressourcenschonender Produkte erfordert den Einsatz digitaler Werkzeuge in der Designphase, der virtuellen Absicherung, der Fertigung und Qualitätsüberwachung sowie nachgelagerten Bauteilprüfung zur Abbildung der Nutzungsphase. Im Rahmen der Arbeiten wird daher der gesamte Produktentstehungs- und Prüfprozess betrachtet. Dies beinhaltet das Design im Kontext des konstruktiven Leichtbaus, den schweißtechnischen Fertigungsprozess, die Bauteilprüfung sowie den Transfer der Ergebnisse in die Industrie durch serientaugliche Demonstratoren. Der Fokus der Arbeiten ist, die Fertigung auch im Umfeld eines für großskalige Stahlstrukturen üblichen hohen Individualisierungsgrades schweißtechnisch zu automatisieren und das Leichtbaupotenzial gezielt umzusetzen. Die Vorgaben aus der Designphase hinsichtlich einer lastgerechten Gestaltung bzw. Implementierung bionischer Ansätze können so gezielt durch einen adaptiven, automatisierten Schweißprozess eingestellt werden. Dies führt zu einer Erhöhung der Ermüdungs¬festigkeit und damit Produktlebensdauer, wodurch die Strukturen dünnwandiger ausgeführt und Ressourcen sowie CO2 eingespart werden können.
Innovative Design- und Fertigungsstrategien zur Steigerung der Leichtbaupotenziale im Stahlbau
(2022)
Ziel des Verbundvorhabens „SmartWeld“ ist es, für die schweißtechnische Fertigung von Stahlbaustrukturen exemplarisch am Beispiel von Hohlprofilknoten, welche als designrelevante Elemente von Gründungsstrukturen für Offshore-Windenergieanlagen (OWEA) einsetzbar sind, die Möglichkeiten des Leichtbaus unter konsequenter Digitalisierung der Fertigungskette aufzuzeigen, um einerseits die Ressourceneffizienz zu forcieren und gleichzeitig wettbewerbsfähige Fertigungsstrategien aufzuzeigen.
Innerhalb von „SmartWeld“ werden daher die Möglichkeiten einer wirtschaftlichen Fertigung von Leichtbau-Gründungsstrukturen am Beispiel aufgelöster Tragstrukturen (Jackets) aufgezeigt. Eine lastgerechte Auslegung der Schweißverbindungen nach bionischen Prinzipien ermöglicht, weitere Einsparpotenziale an Ressourcen bei gleichzeitiger Erhöhung der Lebensdauer zu erschließen.
Die Ausnutzung konstruktiver Prinzipien des Leichtbaus zur Erzeugung innovativer und ressourcenschonender Produkte erfordert den Einsatz digitaler Werkzeuge in der Designphase, der virtuellen Absicherung, der Fertigung und Qualitätsüberwachung sowie nachgelagerten Bauteilprüfung zur Abbildung der Nutzungsphase. Im Rahmen der Arbeiten wird daher der gesamte Produktentstehungs- und Prüfprozess betrachtet. Dies beinhaltet das Design im Kontext des konstruktiven Leichtbaus, den schweißtechnischen Fertigungsprozess, die Bauteilprüfung sowie den Transfer der Ergebnisse in die Industrie durch serientaugliche Demonstratoren. Der Fokus der Arbeiten ist, die Fertigung auch im Umfeld eines für großskalige Stahlstrukturen üblichen hohen Individualisierungsgrades schweißtechnisch zu automatisieren und das Leichtbaupotenzial gezielt umzusetzen. Die Vorgaben aus der Designphase hinsichtlich einer lastgerechten Gestaltung bzw. Implementierung bionischer Ansätze können so gezielt durch einen adaptiven, automatisierten Schweißprozess eingestellt werden. Dies führt zu einer Erhöhung der Ermüdungs¬festigkeit und damit Produktlebensdauer, wodurch die Strukturen dünnwandiger ausgeführt und Ressourcen sowie CO2 eingespart werden können.
Innovative Design- und Fertigungsstrategien zur Steigerung der Leichtbaupotenziale im Stahlbau
(2022)
Offshore wind energy plays an important role for the desired transition towards a carbon dioxide free industry within the next decades. However, the grounding of the offshore wind plants governs the overall installation process besides bureaucratic bottlenecks.
The application of lightweight principles in steel construction, e.g. the usage dissolved load-bearing structures, so called Jackets foundations, offer great potential in reducing the resource consumption, especially with respect to the needed amount of steel.
In this context this presentation focuses on a fully digitalization of the welding manufacturing and as well as testing chain to enable a fully automated manufacturing as well as quality assessment of tubular nodes as key element of Jackets foundation structures. Furthermore, the relationship between the seam shape geometry and resulting fatigue strength is evaluated by numerical methods incorporating bionic principles. It is shown that tubular nodes can be welded fully automatically taking geometry tolerances into account. Moreover, the seam shape could be manufactured as requested by the numerical models which offers great potential for an extended lifetime. Subsequently, the improvements in resource efficiency and reduction of carbon dioxide emissions are evaluated by a life-cycle-assessment.
Aim of this study is to provide information about moisture dependent material behaviour of unstabilised loadbearing earth blocks and mortars. Compressive strength and Young’s modulus were investigated after conditioning in varying relative humidity reaching from 40 % up to 95 %. The material composition and physical properties were investigated to understand the influence of relative humidity onto the mechanical properties. A normalisation of strength and stiffness by the values obtained at 23 ◦C and 50 % relative humidity reveals a linear dependence of compressive strength and Young’s modulus that is regardless of the material composition.
Thus, it is possible to describe the influence of relative humidity onto the load-bearing behaviour of unstabilised earth masonry materials in a generally valid formulation.
Reinforced concrete (RC) is used as structural material in most diverse civil engineering applications. For the variability of its physical properties it is still an engineering challenge to meet all necessary requirements for the prediction of dynamic effects under impact loading. In this paper, investigations are shown within the scope of quantifying and evaluating the damage caused by an impact. The experimental investigations are performed in the field of low- and medium-velocity impact. The chosen flat nose shape results in small penetrations on the top side and scabbing on the bottom side. The plate is scanned with an adapted planar tomographic examination after the impact, and the damage is analysed, afterwards. Cracks and spalling are made visible with a reconstruction. The numerical model validated on the tomographic results justifies the application for further predictions of the damage description.
Reinforced concrete (RC) is used as structural material in most diverse civil engineering applications. For the variability of its physical properties it is still an engineering challenge to meet all necessary requirements for the prediction of dynamic effects under impact loading. In this paper, investigations are shown within the scope of quantifying and evaluating the damage caused by an impact. The experimental investigations are performed in the field of low- and medium-velocity impact. The chosen flat nose shape results in small penetrations on the top side and scabbing on the bottom side. The plate is scanned with an adapted planar tomographic examination after the impact, and the damage is analysed, afterwards. Cracks and spalling are made visible with a reconstruction. The numerical model validated on the tomographic results justifies the application for further predictions of the damage description.
At the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) full scale specimens for nuclear transport and storage containers (casks) are tested for their structural integrity in a series of drop tests on the Test Site Technical Safety in Horstwalde, 50 km south of Berlin. These drop tests cause a major stress not only on the casks, but also on the steel tower structure of the test facility, itself. The load pattern makes the structure very interesting for detailed investigation. The focus of the monitoring lies on the bolted joints of the flange connections that are a typical connection for cylindrical elements if welding is technical or economical unfavorable. The definition of the monitoring takes was done by investigating the existing documents and inspection results accompanied by building an initial digital representation of the structure, consisting of two finite element (FE) models and a geometrical 3D point cloud representation. As a first step the structures behavior during static and dynamic loading was analyzed using measurement data and an updated numerical FE Model. The idea behind is to use models for a digital planning and operation/evaluation of the structural health monitoring. A static FE simulation and a dynamic FE simulation are generated, to investigate how the structure behaves under the load conditions.
At the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) full scale specimens for nuclear transport and storage containers (casks) are tested for their structural integrity in a series of drop tests on the Test Site Technical Safety in Horstwalde, 50 km south of Berlin. These drop tests cause a major stress not only on the casks, but also on the steel tower structure of the test facility, itself. The load pattern makes the structure very interesting for detailed investigation. The focus of the monitoring lies on the bolted joints of the flange connections that are a typical connection for cylindrical elements if welding is technical or economical unfavorable. The definition of the monitoring takes was done by investigating the existing documents and inspection results accompanied by building an initial digital representation of the structure, consisting of two finite element (FE) models and a geometrical 3D point cloud representation. As a first step the structures behavior during static and dynamic loading was analyzed using measurement data and an updated numerical FE Model. The idea behind is to use models for a digital planning and operation/evaluation of the structural health monitoring. A static FE simulation and a dynamic FE simulation are generated, to investigate how the structure behaves under the load conditions.
The Federal Institute of Material Research and Testing has performed many impact tests from very small laboratory tests to very big “free-field” tests with heavy containers on stiff foundations. The first measurements have been done on a big foundation where it should be guaranteed that the foundation is rigid and the container is tested properly. Later on, a smaller drop test facility has been built on the ground inside an existing building. It had to be controlled by prediction and measurements that the drop test will not damage the building. Tests from different heights on soft, medium, and stiff targets have been done to find out rules which allow to identify acceptable and unacceptable drop tests. Later on, the biggest drop test facility has been built for masses up to 200 t. It was necessary for the design of the foundation to estimate the forces which oc-cur during the drop tests. In addititon, the acceptable tests should be selected and controlled by measurements where the impact duration is important. Dif-ferent sensors, accelerometers, accelerometers with mechanical filters, geo-phones (velocity transducers), strain gauges, and pressure cells have been ap-plied for these tasks. Signal transformations and model calculations have been used to check and understand the dynamic measurements. The simplest law is the conservation of the momentum which is a good approximation if the impact is short. If the soil under the foundation has an influence on the deceleration of the container, the maximum foundation velocity is lower than the simple esti-mation.
The Federal Institute of Material Research and Testing has performed many impact tests from very small laboratory tests to very big “free-field” tests with heavy containers on stiff foundations. The first measurements have been done on a big foundation where it should be guaranteed that the foundation is rigid and the container is tested properly. Later on, a smaller drop test facility has been built on the ground inside an existing building. It had to be controlled by prediction and measurements that the drop test will not damage the building. Tests from different heights on soft, medium, and stiff targets have been done to find out rules which allow to identify acceptable and unacceptable drop tests. Later on, the biggest drop test facility has been built for masses up to 200 t. It was necessary for the design of the foundation to estimate the forces which oc-cur during the drop tests. In addititon, the acceptable tests should be selected and controlled by measurements where the impact duration is important. Dif-ferent sensors, accelerometers, accelerometers with mechanical filters, geo-phones (velocity transducers), strain gauges, and pressure cells have been ap-plied for these tasks. Signal transformations and model calculations have been used to check and understand the dynamic measurements. The simplest law is the conservation of the momentum which is a good approximation if the impact is short. If the soil under the foundation has an influence on the deceleration of the container, the maximum foundation velocity is lower than the simple esti-mation.
Within the presented research project, experimental and numerical investigations were performed to develop a thin-shelled, modular, mobile element system made of a micro-reinforced ultra-high-performance ductile concrete (DUCON®). Material parameters were experimentally determined to adapt the material model within the numerical analysis applying the Drucker-Prager relationship. Afterwards, for validation of the numerical models, quasi-static and high-velocity impact tests were performed on plate-like structures. Finally, a suitable geometry of transportable barrier elements will be designed, which provides a maximum of resistance against impact by a minimum of weight and a maximum of mobility.
Within the presented research project, experimental and numerical investigations were performed to develop a thin-shelled, modular, mobile element system made of a micro-reinforced ultra-high-performance ductile concrete (DUCON®). Material parameters were experimentally determined to adapt the material model within the numerical analysis applying the Drucker-Prager relationship. Afterwards, for validation of the numerical models, quasi-static and high-velocity impact tests were performed on plate-like structures. Finally, a suitable geometry of transportable barrier elements will be designed, which provides a maximum of resistance against impact by a minimum of weight and a maximum of mobility.
Within the presented research project, experimental and numerical investigations were performed to develop a thin-shelled, modular, mobile element system made of a micro-reinforced ultra-high-performance ductile concrete (DUCON®). Material parameters were experimentally determined to adapt the material model within the numerical analysis applying the Drucker-Prager relationship. Afterwards, for validation of the numerical models, quasi-static and high-velocity impact tests were performed on plate-like structures. Finally, a suitable geometry of transportable barrier elements will be designed, which provides a maximum of resistance against impact by a minimum of weight and a maximum of mobility.
Environmental based perturbations influence significantly the ability to identify structural dam-age in Structural Health Monitoring. Strategies are needed to classify such effects and consider them appropri-ately in SHM. It has to be considered if seasonal effects just mask the structural response or if temperature itself correlates to a weakening of the structure. Various methods have been developed and analyzed to separate environmental based effects from damage induced changes in the measures. Generally, two main approaches have emerged from research activity in this fields: (a) statistics-based tools analyzing patterns in the data or in computed parameters and (b) methods, utilizing the structural model of the bridge considering environmental as well as damage-based changes of stiffness values. With the background of increasing affordability of sensing and computing technology, effort should be made to increase sensitivity, reliability and robustness of proce-dures, separating environmental from damage caused changes in SHM measures. The contribution describes an attempt to evaluate both general strategies, their advantages and drawbacks. In addition, two vibration moni-toring procedures are introduced, allowing for temperature-based perturbations of the monitoring data.
Prediction of dynamic effects of reinforced concrete structures under impact loading is a technical challenge. This is a consequence of the great variability of the physical properties resulting from the wide adaptability of reinforced concrete and a consequence of the wide range of impact loading. Experiments and numerical investigations are normally used on a small scale to address the problem. In this paper, impact tests on reinforced conrete plates with the lateral dimensions of 1.5 m x 1.5 m and a thickness of 30 cm are presented. In bending reinforcement, besides the velocity two properties are varied, the diameter and the spatial distribution of the rebars. Experiments are performed at the Otto-Mohr-Laboratory of the Institute of Concrete Structures of the Technische Universit¨at Dresden. Due to the accelerated fall of the impactor the velocity ranges between 20 and 70 m/s. In addition to the measured quantities such as bearing forces, accelerations are also measured at 4 different positions on and under the plate, as well as the deflection at several positions. The measured data are used for the analysis of the damage form and the numerical examinations with the program Ansys Autodyn and the material model after Drucker-Prager. Numerical investigations support the tests, with detailed analysis of individual effects. These numerical computations and the planar tomographic investigations were carried out at BAM in Berlin. With the help of planar tomographic evaluation, the damaged structure is made visible and compared with the numerical results. Influences of the bending reinforcement are explained on the basis of damage evaluation in the local area and on selected measured values. In addition to the test evaluation, the tomographic and numerical methods are presented.
Prediction of dynamic effects of reinforced concrete structures under impact loading is a technical challenge. This is a consequence of the great variability of the physical properties resulting from the wide adaptability of reinforced concrete and a consequence of the wide range of impact loading. Experiments and numerical investigations are normally used on a small scale to address the problem. In this paper, impact tests on reinforced conrete plates with the lateral dimensions of 1.5 m x 1.5 m and a thickness of 30 cm are presented. In bending reinforcement, besides the velocity two properties are varied, the diameter and the spatial distribution of the rebars. Experiments are performed at the Otto-Mohr-Laboratory of the Institute of Concrete Structures of the Technische Universit¨at Dresden. Due to the accelerated fall of the impactor the velocity ranges between 20 and 70 m/s. In addition to the measured quantities such as bearing forces, accelerations are also measured at 4 different positions on and under the plate, as well as the deflection at several positions. The measured data are used for the analysis of the damage form and the numerical examinations with the program Ansys Autodyn and the material model after Drucker-Prager.
Numerical investigations support the tests, with detailed analysis of individual effects. These numerical computations and the planar tomographic investigations were carried out at BAM in Berlin. With the help of planar tomographic evaluation, the damaged structure is
made visible and compared with the numerical results. Influences of the bending reinforcement are explained on the basis of damage evaluation in the local area and on selected measured values. In addition to the test evaluation, the tomographic and numerical methods are presented.
Safety evaluation of truss structures depends upon the determination of the axial forces and corresponding stresses in axially loaded members. Due to presence of damages, change in intended use, increase in service loads or accidental actions, structural assessment of existing truss structures is necessary. This applies particularly to iron and steel trusses that are still in use, including historic and heritage monuments. Precise identification of the stresses plays a crucial role for the preservation of historic trusses. The assessment measures require non–destructiveness, minimum intervention and practical applicability.
The axial forces in truss structures can be estimated by static calculations using the method of joints, method of sections or finite element method, if accurate information about parameters such as external loads, geometrical characteristics, mechanical properties, boundary conditions and joint connections are known. However, precise information about these parameters is difficult to be obtained in practice. Especially in the cases of historic constructions, reasonable assumptions about the uncertain parameters may not be acquired.
Motivated by the preservation of existing truss−type constructions composed of axially loaded slender members, the present work aims to develop a non–destructive methodology to identify the axial forces or corresponding stress states in iron and steel truss structures. The approach is based on vibration measurements and the finite element method combined with optimization techniques.
After a state of the art review, numerical and experimental studies were carried out on three partial systems of truss–type structures. The investigated systems included single bars, a two–bar truss−like system and a five–bar truss. They were developed step–by–step as built–up truss−type constructions that are constituted of individual members connecting at joints. The examined aspects included the effects of structural loading on the dynamic performance of truss structures, modelling of joint connections, mode pairing criteria, selection of updating parameters and definition of an objective function, as well as the use of different optimization techniques.
Concerning the axial force effects on the structural dynamic responses, the effects of the stress stiffening become more complicated for multiple–member truss systems with increasing complexity. The coexistence of both compressive and tensile forces in trusses has counteracting effects on the modal parameters. These effects cause variation of natural frequencies and interchange of modes when the loads or corresponding member forces are changed. To examine the axial force effects on the structures at different stress states, in the numerical study and laboratory experiments, loads were applied progressively to the investigated truss−like systems.
Regarding the modelling of joints for truss–type structures, the joint flexibility affects the structural dynamic responses. Therefore, the numerical models of truss−type structures include joint models with variable rotational springs to represent semi–rigid connections.
Considering the mode pairing criterion, the mode pairing is performed by adapting an enhanced modal assurance criterion with the calculation of the modal strain energy. The criterion allows the selection of desired clusters of degrees of freedom related to specific modes. With respect to the model updating strategies, the selection of updating parameters and the choice of an appropriate objective function are identified to be significantly important. In addition, three different optimization techniques were applied to compare their suitability for the inverse axial force identification and estimation of joint flexibility of truss structures. The results of the numerical study and laboratory tests show that nature–inspired optimization methods are considered as promising techniques.
A methodology consisted of a two–stage model updating procedure using optimization techniques was proposed for the determination of multiple member axial forces and estimation of the joint flexibility of truss–type structures. In the first stage optimization, the validation criterion is based on the experimentally identified global natural frequencies and mode shapes of the truss. Additionally, the axial forces in selected individual members of the truss are used. They are estimated from the natural frequencies and five amplitudes of the corresponding local mode shapes of the members using an analytically−based algorithm. Based on the results of the identified axial forces in the first stage, a second optimization procedure for the joint stiffnesses is performed. In this stage, the modal parameters of the global natural frequencies and mode shapes are used as validation criterion.
From the results of the laboratory experiments, the identified axial forces by the proposed methodology agree well with the experimentally measured axial forces of the investigated systems at different stress states. Moreover, based on the numerical verification, the identified joint stiffnesses indicate reasonably the joint flexibility in relation to the pinned or rigid conditions.
To assess the relevance of the proposed methodology on existing structures in real−life conditions, an in–situ experiment was carried out on a historic Wiegmann–Polonceau truss in the city of Potsdam. The in–situ experiment shows that uncertainties relating the mechanical and geometrical properties of historic trusses as well as the experimental sensor setup can influence the accuracy of the axial force identification. In the present work, recommendations are given for the development of a guideline of measuring concepts and assessment strategies applied to existing truss structures. The intention is to integrate the proposed methodology as part of the Structural Health Monitoring for historic truss–type constructions.
Lehmmauerwerk bietet sich aufgrund seiner zahlreichen ökologischen Vorteile für die Errichtung klimafreundlicher und ressourcenschonender Gebäude an. Um den Anwendungsbereich tragenden Lehmmauerwerks durch eine zeitgemäße Nachweisführung zu erweitern, werden in diesem Beitrag Grundlagen für die Entwicklung eines eurocodekonformen Bemessungskonzepts erarbeitet. Hierzu werden die Ergebnisse umfangreicher experimenteller Untersuchungen an Lehmmauerwerk sowie Lehmsteinen und -mörteln nach Konditionierung bei unterschiedlichen Klimata vorgestellt. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine Traglastanalyse druckbeanspruchter Lehmmauerwerkswände mittels numerischer und analytischer Methoden. Die daraus gewonnenen Erkenntnisse werden abschließend in einen an DIN~EN~1996-3/NA angelehnten Bemessungsvorschlag überführt, welcher die materialspezifischen Besonderheiten von Lehmmauerwerk berücksichtigt und eine fundierte Grundlage für eine wirtschaftliche und zuverlässige Nachweisführung darstellt.
This talk provides a brief overview on some geomechanical phenomena and problematic issues in the field of offshore wind-energy geotechnics, with reference to their associated challenges for a numerical analysis/simulation. These may include large deformations, fluid coupling and grain-scale phenomena, all of which are generally difficult to be addressed with conventional FE techniques.
These challenges are illustrated here with a practical example for the retrofit of axially loaded piles using compaction grouting techniques. In this case, the mechanical effects of the retrofit may be analysed with standard FE techniques, but require the adoption of strong assumptions, while the injection process itself can only be analysed with special techniques such as the MPM.
Finally, an LBM-DEM framework for the micromechanical analysis of such problems is introduced and a practical application for the estimation of the soil resistance to driving (SRD) in layered profiles is discussed.
The erosion of natural sediments by a superficial fluid flow is a generic situation in many usual geological or industrial contexts. However, there is still a lack of fundamental knowledge about erosional processes, especially concerning the role of internal cohesion and adhesive stresses on issues such as the critical flow conditions for the erosion onset or the kinetics of soil mass loss. This contribution investigates the influence of cohesion on the surface erosion by an impinging jet flow based on laboratory tests with artificially bonded granular materials. The model samples are made of spherical glass beads bonded either by solid bridges made of resin or by liquid bridges made of a highly viscous oil. To quantify the intergranular cohesion, the capillary forces of the liquid bridges are here estimated by measuring their main geometrical parameters with image-processing techniques and using well-known analytical expressions. For the solid bonds, the adhesive strength of the materials is estimated by direct measurement of the yield tensile forces and stresses at the particle and sample scales, respectively, with specific traction tests developed for this purpose. The proper erosion tests are then carried out in an optically adapted device that permits a direct visualization of the scouring process at the jet apex by means of the refractive index matching technique. On this basis, the article examines qualitatively the kinetics of the scour crater excavation for both scenarios, namely, for an intergranular cohesion induced by either liquid or solid bonds. From a quantitative perspective, the critical condition for the erosion onset is discussed specifically for the case of the solid bond cohesion. In this respect, we propose here a generalized form of the Shields criterion based on a common definition of a cohesion number from yield tensile values, derived at both micro- and macroscales. The article finally shows that the proposed form manages to reconcile the experimental data for cohesive and cohesionless materials, the latter in the form of the so-called Shields curve along with some previous results of the authors which have been appropriately revisited.
Wir stellen unseren Ansatz und unsere Methodik zur Simulation von Piping-Erosion vor, welche während des Installationsprozesses von Suction Bucket Fundamenten für Offshore-Windkraftanlagen auftreten kann und ein kritisches Versagen des Installationsprozesses darstellt. Wir zeigen die Ergebnisse mehrere Simulationen und analysieren die hydrodynamischen und Kontaktkräfte, die auf das granulare Medium wirken, sowie die Druckdifferenz der flüssigen Phase. Solche Simulationen können zum besseren Verständnis von Piping-Erosion und letztendlich zu dessen Verhinderung beitragen.
Die Prognose und Minderung von Bahnerschütterungen haben eine lange Tradition in der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung. Im Jahr 2006 wurde eine Prognose-Software fertiggestellt, die viele Forschungs- und Messergebnisse zusammenfasst. Sie umfasst die Teilbereiche Emission (die Anregung durch die Fahrzeug-Fahrweg-Untergrund-Wechselwirkung), die Transmission (die Ausbreitung durch den Boden) und die Immission (die Übertragung vom Freifeld in ein Gebäude). Die Prognose geschieht in allen Teilen mit einfachen Formeln, die veröffentlicht sind und zur Anwendung für Jedermann zur Verfügung stehen. Es werden Beispiele zur Emission und zur Transmission gezeigt.
Im Bereich Transmissionsprognose werden zu den Anregungskräften (aus dem Emissionsteil) die Bodenerschütterungen als Schwinggeschwindigkeitsterzspektren berechnet. Das Ergebnis hängt stark von der Bodensteifigkeit, -dämpfung und -schichtung ab. Dies wurde später mit einer Messkampagne in der Schweiz an 10 Messorten bestätigt (Bild 1). Die Berechnung erfolgt näherungsweise für einen geschichteten Boden mit einer frequenzabhängigen Wellengeschwindigkeit (Dispersion) oder einem tiefenabhängigen Wellengeschwindigkeitsprofil.
Die Anregungskräfte werden im Prognosebereich Emission mit einem 2-dimensionalen Gleismodell berechnet (Bild 2). 1-dimensionale Modelle liefern meist falsche Ergebnisse und 3-dimensionale Modelle (zum Beispiel mit der kombinierten Finite-Element-Randelement-Methode) sind für eine Erschütterungs¬prognose sicherlich zu aufwändig. Das 2-dimensionale Modell wurde an 3-dimensionale Ergebnisse so angepasst, dass die Ergebnisse für viele Gleise und Böden annähernd zutreffen. Auch Minderungs¬maßnahmen am Gleis können mit diesem Modell sehr gut berechnet werden.
Die Prognoseverfahren wurden in den folgenden Jahren weiter verfeinert. Es wurde die quasi-statische Anregung durch die bewegten statischen Zuglasten mit einer Näherungsformel ergänzt, so dass auch das tieffrequente Nahfeld realistisch erfasst werden kann. Mit der Berücksichtigung der Achsfolge (insbesondere zwischen den Achsen im Drehgestell) ergeben sich zwei typische Minima in den Erschütterungsspektren, die oft auch in den Messungen beobachtet werden. Der Amplitudenanteil zwischen diesen beiden Minima ist oft stärker angehoben, so dass hier eine zusätzliche Erschütterungsanregung vermutet wird. Dieser Anteil kann rein empirisch prognostiziert werden, so wie das in den englischen Prognosen (zuletzt für das Highspeed2-Projekt) enthalten ist. Die Begründung dieses Anteils ist allerdings nicht die Achsfolge, sondern die Zerstreuung der statischen Achslastimpulse durch einen unregelmäßigen Gleisuntergrund und Boden.
Die messtechnische Ermittlung eines Minderungseffektes ist komplizierter als allgemein angenommen. Es reicht nicht aus, jeweils an einem Messpunkt in der Nähe eines Gleises mit und ohne Minderungs¬maßnahme die Erschütterungen zu messen und aus dem Verhältnis der Amplituden (beziehungsweise aus der Differenz der Pegel) „die Einfügedämmung“ zu ermitteln. Es wird an Beispielen gezeigt, wie man hier sinnvoller vorgehen kann.
1. Zunächst ist es wichtig, nicht nur die Einfügedämmung sondern auch die Originalspektren mit und ohne Minderung zu dokumentieren und zu veröffentlichen, damit man kontrollieren kann, ob wesentliche Amplituden und Frequenzbereiche reduziert sind oder ob es sich um eher zufällige Minderungen oder Verstärkungen handelt. (Beispiel Unterschottermatte/Raron, Müller/SBB)
2. Der Messpunkt sollte nicht im Nahbereich des Gleises liegen, da ansonsten eine zu günstige, falsche Einfügedämmung bestimmt wird. (Beispiel Tunnel/ Leipzig/Breitsamter)
3. Um Zufälligkeiten zu vermeiden, sollte man an mehr als einem Punkt messen. (Beispiel Unterschotterplatte/Altheim/Auersch)
4. Man sollte eigentlich immer auch die Bodenkennwerte (Steifigkeit, Dämpfung, Amplituden-abnahme, Übertagungsfunktion) messen. Selbst bei nahegelegene Messquerschnitten kann man Überraschungen erleben. (Beispiel erste ICE-Messungen/bei Würzburg/Auersch)
5. Bei verschiedenen Bodenkennwerten kann man eine Korrektur durchführen. (Beispiel Gleis-tröge/Mistler) Am besten bestimmt man ein äquivalentes Kraftspektrum zu jedem Messort und jedem Messzug (Beispiel Feste Fahrbahn/Gardelegen/Auersch)
6. Prinzipiell gibt es nicht die Einfügedämmung einer Maßnahme. Die Einfügedämmung ist immer boden- und referenzsystemabhängig. Die „beste“ Einfügungsdämmung erhält man mit einem steifen Untergrund (Beispiel Unterschottermatte/Tunnel/München Gasteig/Wettschureck) Das heißt aber nicht, dass die Maßnahme durch einen künstlich versteiften Untergrund besser wird (Beispiel Unterschottermatten/RRT2006/Auersch)
Es werden Messbeispiele gezeigt, die alle neben einer hochfrequenten dynamischen Minderung auch eine mittelfrequente quasi-statische Minderung aufweisen. Dabei wird der mittelfrequente Zerstreuanteil der statischen Achslastimpulse durch die breitere Lastverteilung und damit die Impulsdehnung der Achslastimpulse reduziert. Diese Impulsdehnung lässt sich mit dem 2-dimensionalen Gleismodell berechnen. Die Minderungswirkung hängt aber wiederum vom Referenzsystem und dessen unregel¬mäßiger Steifigkeitsverteilung ab. Je unregelmäßiger der Boden und Gleisuntergrund des Referenz¬systems, desto stärker ist die Minderungswirkung.
Die Prognose und Minderung von Bahnerschütterungen haben eine lange Tradition in der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung. Im Jahr 2006 wurde eine Prognose-Software fertiggestellt, die viele Forschungs- und Messergebnisse zusammenfasst. Sie umfasst die Teilbereiche Emission (die Anregung durch die Fahrzeug-Fahrweg-Untergrund-Wechselwirkung), die Transmission (die Ausbreitung durch den Boden) und die Immission (die Übertragung vom Freifeld in ein Gebäude). Die Prognose geschieht in allen Teilen mit einfachen Formeln, die veröffentlicht sind und zur Anwendung für Jedermann zur Verfügung stehen. Es werden Beispiele zur Emission und zur Transmission gezeigt. Im Bereich Transmissionsprognose werden zu den Anregungskräften (aus dem Emissionsteil) die Bodenerschütterungen als Schwinggeschwindigkeitsterzspektren berechnet. Das Ergebnis hängt stark von der Bodensteifigkeit, -dämpfung und -schichtung ab. Dies wurde später mit einer Messkampagne in der Schweiz an 10 Messorten bestätigt. Die Berechnung erfolgt näherungsweise für einen geschichteten Boden mit einer frequenzabhängigen Wellengeschwindigkeit (Dispersion) oder einem tiefenabhängigen Wellengeschwindigkeitsprofil. Die Anregungskräfte werden im Prognosebereich Emission mit einem 2-dimensionalen Gleismodell berechnet. 1-dimensionale Modelle liefern meist falsche Ergebnisse und 3-dimensionale Modelle (zum Beispiel mit der kombinierten Finite-Element-Randelement-Methode) sind für eine Erschütterungs¬prognose sicherlich zu aufwändig. Das 2-dimensionale Modell wurde an 3-dimensionale Ergebnisse so angepasst, dass die Ergebnisse für viele Gleise und Böden annähernd zutreffen. Auch Minderungs¬maßnahmen am Gleis können mit diesem Modell sehr gut berechnet werden. Die Prognoseverfahren wurden in den folgenden Jahren weiter verfeinert. Es wurde die quasi-statische Anregung durch die bewegten statischen Zuglasten mit einer Näherungsformel ergänzt, so dass auch das tieffrequente Nahfeld realistisch erfasst werden kann. Mit der Berücksichtigung der Achsfolge (insbesondere zwischen den Achsen im Drehgestell) ergeben sich zwei typische Minima in den Erschütterungsspektren, die oft auch in den Messungen beobachtet werden. Der Amplitudenanteil zwischen diesen beiden Minima ist oft stärker angehoben, so dass hier eine zusätzliche Erschütterungsanregung vermutet wird. Dieser Anteil kann rein empirisch prognostiziert werden, so wie das in den englischen Prognosen (zuletzt für das Highspeed2-Projekt) enthalten ist. Die Begründung dieses Anteils ist allerdings nicht die Achsfolge, sondern die Zerstreuung der statischen Achslastimpulse durch einen unregelmäßigen Gleisuntergrund und Boden. Die messtechnische Ermittlung eines Minderungseffektes ist komplizierter als allgemein angenommen. Es reicht nicht aus, jeweils an einem Messpunkt in der Nähe eines Gleises mit und ohne Minderungsmaßnahme die Erschütterungen zu messen und aus dem Verhältnis der Amplituden (beziehungsweise aus der Differenz der Pegel) „die Einfügedämmung“ zu ermitteln. Es wird an Beispielen gezeigt, wie man hier sinnvoller vorgehen kann. 1. Zunächst ist es wichtig, nicht nur die Einfügedämmung sondern auch die Originalspektren mit und ohne Minderung zu dokumentieren und zu veröffentlichen, damit man kontrollieren kann, ob wesentliche Amplituden und Frequenzbereiche reduziert sind oder ob es sich um eher zufällige Minderungen oder Verstärkungen handelt. (Beispiel Unterschottermatte/Raron, Müller/SBB) 2. Der Messpunkt sollte nicht im Nahbereich des Gleises liegen, da ansonsten eine zu günstige, falsche Einfügedämmung bestimmt wird. (Beispiel Tunnel/ Leipzig/Breitsamter) 3. Um Zufälligkeiten zu vermeiden, sollte man an mehr als einem Punkt messen. (Beispiel Unterschotterplatte/Altheim/Auersch) 4. Man sollte eigentlich immer auch die Bodenkennwerte (Steifigkeit, Dämpfung, Amplituden-abnahme, Übertagungsfunktion) messen. Selbst bei nahegelegene Messquerschnitten kann man Überraschungen erleben. (Beispiel erste ICE-Messungen/bei Würzburg/Auersch) 5. Bei verschiedenen Bodenkennwerten kann man eine Korrektur durchführen. (Beispiel Gleis-tröge/Mistler) Am besten bestimmt man ein äquivalentes Kraftspektrum zu jedem Messort und jedem Messzug (Beispiel Feste Fahrbahn/Gardelegen/Auersch) 6. Prinzipiell gibt es nicht die Einfügedämmung einer Maßnahme. Die Einfügedämmung ist immer boden- und referenzsystemabhängig. Die „beste“ Einfügungsdämmung erhält man mit einem steifen Untergrund (Beispiel Unterschottermatte/Tunnel/München Gasteig/Wettschureck) Das heißt aber nicht, dass die Maßnahme durch einen künstlich versteiften Untergrund besser wird (Beispiel Unterschottermatten/RRT2006/Auersch) Es werden Messbeispiele gezeigt, die alle neben einer hochfrequenten dynamischen Minderung auch eine mittelfrequente quasi-statische Minderung aufweisen. Dabei wird der mittelfrequente Zerstreuanteil der statischen Achslastimpulse durch die breitere Lastverteilung und damit die Impulsdehnung der Achslastimpulse reduziert. Diese Impulsdehnung lässt sich mit dem 2-dimensionalen Gleismodell berechnen. Die Minderungswirkung hängt aber wiederum vom Referenzsystem und dessen unregelmäßiger Steifigkeitsverteilung ab. Je unregelmäßiger der Boden und Gleisuntergrund des Referenzsystems, desto stärker ist die Minderungswirkung.
Mitigation measures of railway induced vibration have been demonstrated at the emission, transmission and immission part. It must be carefully observed that the correct masses and stiffnesses are used.
Typical mistakes have been shown,
- 1D models for vehicle-track interaction,
- impedance instead of stiffness for the infill material of a trench,
- rigid buildings or neglecting the soil-building interaction.
The dominant mid-frequency part of the ground vibration is due to the irregular soil.
Fault detection for linear parameter varying systems under changes in the process noise covariance
(2020)
Detecting changes in the eigenstructure of linear systems is a comprehensively investigated subject. In particular, change detection methods based on hypothesis testing using Gaussian residuals have been developed previously. In such residuals, a reference model is confronted to data from the current system. In this paper, linear output-only systems depending on a varying external physical parameter are considered. These systems are driven by process noise, whose covariance may also vary between measurements. To deal with the varying parameter, an interpolation approach is pursued, where a limited number of reference models – each estimated from data measured in a reference state – are interpolated to approximate an adequate reference model for the current parameter. The problem becomes more complex when the different points of interpolation correspond to different noise conditions. Then conflicts may arise between the detection of changes in the eigenstructure due to a fault and the detection of changes due to different noise conditions. For this case, a new change detection approach is developed based on the interpolation of the eigenstructure at the reference points. The resulting approach is capable of change detection when both the external physical parameter and the process noise conditions are varying. This approach is validated on a numerical simulation of a mechanical system.