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Organisationseinheit der BAM
- 4 Material und Umwelt (1080)
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- 6 Materialchemie (89)
- 1 Analytische Chemie; Referenzmaterialien (72)
- 6.1 Oberflächen- und Dünnschichtanalyse (35)
Paper des Monats
- ja (13)
Thermochemische Aufarbeitung von Stahlwerksstäuben und -schlämmen zur Zink- und Eisenrückgewinnung
(2024)
Stahlwerksstäube und -schlämme enthalten in der Regel Schwermetalle wie Zink, Blei und Cadmium, die ein direktes Recycling verhindern und diese Stoffe potenziell umweltgefährdend machen. Um diese Schwermetalle aus den Materialien zu entfernen, werden drei thermochemische Verfahren zur Aufarbeitung von Gichtgasschlamm, Elektroofenstaub und ähnlichen Stahlwerksstäuben vorgestellt. Zum einen kann die Mischung von Elektroofenstaub mit chloridhaltigen Lösungen, wie sie z. B. in der Titandioxidproduktion anfallen, gemischt werden, um bei der thermischen Behandlung Schwermetallchloride zu effektiv verdampfen. Weiterhin kann der im Gichtgasschlamm enthaltene Kohlenstoff genutzt werden, um in Mischungen aus Gichtgasschlamm und Elektroofenstaub bei der thermischen Behandlung als Reduktionsmittel zu wirken. Dieses Verfahren führt zur Rückgewinnung von Zink und metallischem Eisen und wird im Technikums- und Pilotmaßstab erprobt. Abschließend wird die Nutzung von Wasserstoff als Reduktionsmittel für Elektroofenstaub vorgestellt. Hierbei lässt sich der Reststoff potenziell klimaneutral in Eisenschwamm umwandeln, wobei die chemischen Grundlagen anhand von DTA-Experimenten und thermodynamischen Simulationen ergründet werden.
Sunlight is an almost unavoidable environmental cue and plays a fundamental role in the biology of pro- and eukaryotic organisms. To cope with sunlight-associated stresses e.g., high temperatures, UV radiation with associated DNA damage, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), desiccation and osmotic stresses, it is important for organisms to accurately sense and respond to changes in light. The benefits of light are obvious for green organisms such as cyanobacteria, algae and plants which use light as an energy source (photosynthesis). Less apparent are other light-dependent processes such as light-driven DNA repair by photolyases (photoreactivation) or ion pumping by microbial opsins. Fungi that can share light-flooded habitats with phototrophs may profit from their excess photosynthetic products. Rock-inhabiting Dothideomycetes and Eurotiomycetes including Knufia petricola possess many proteins for absorbing UV/blue, green, red and far-red light, produce the black 1,8 dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin and orange-red carotenoids, and may live in multispecies biofilms. Here, we are addressing the question to which extent constitutive pigment formation (melanin and carotenoids) and responses mediated by the stress-activated mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase contribute to the observed light (UV-B) tolerance of K. petricola.
Rotschlamm fällt in sehr großen Mengen bei der Herstellung von Aluminiumoxid an und wird fast ausschließlich deponiert. Es wird eine neue Technologie vorgestellt bei der das im Rotschlamm enthaltene Eisenoxid mittels Wasserstoffplasma reduziert wird. Es wird ein Reaktionsmechanismus über Titanomagnetit und Hercynit vorgeschlagen.
AbstractRed mud is the waste of bauxite refinement into alumina, the feedstock for aluminium production1. With about 180 million tonnes produced per year1, red mud has amassed to one of the largest environmentally hazardous waste products, with the staggering amount of 4 billion tonnes accumulated on a global scale1. Here we present how this red mud can be turned into valuable and sustainable feedstock for ironmaking using fossil-free hydrogen-plasma-based reduction, thus mitigating a part of the steel-related carbon dioxide emissions by making it available for the production of several hundred million tonnes of green steel. The process proceeds through rapid liquid-state reduction, chemical partitioning, as well as density-driven and viscosity-driven separation between metal and oxides. We show the underlying chemical reactions, pH-neutralization processes and phase transformations during this surprisingly simple and fast reduction method. The approach establishes a sustainable toxic-waste treatment from aluminium production through using red mud as feedstock to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from steelmaking.
Maintaining and modulating mechanical anisotropy is essential for biological processes. However, how this is achieved at the microscopic scale in living soft matter is not always clear. Although Brillouin light scattering (BLS) spectroscopy can probe the mechanical properties of materials, spatiotemporal mapping of mechanical anisotropies in living matter with BLS microscopy has been complicated by the need for sequential measurements with tilted excitation and detection angles. Here we introduce Brillouin light scattering anisotropy microscopy (BLAM) for mapping high-frequency viscoelastic anisotropy inside living cells. BLAM employs a radial virtually imaged phased array that enables the collection of angle-resolved dispersion in a single shot, thus enabling us to probe phonon modes in living matter along different directions simultaneously. We demonstrate a precision of 10 MHz in the determination of the Brillouin frequency shift, at a spatial resolution of 2 µm. Following proof-of-principle experiments on muscle myofibres, we apply BLAM to the study of two fundamental biological processes. In plant cell walls, we observe a switch from anisotropic to isotropic wall properties that may lead to asymmetric growth. In mammalian cell nuclei, we uncover a spatiotemporally oscillating elastic anisotropy correlated to chromatin condensation. Our results highlight the role that high-frequency mechanics can play in the regulation of diverse fundamental processes in biological systems. We expect BLAM to find diverse applications in biomedical imaging and material characterization.
Sunlight is an almost unavoidable environmental cue and plays a fundamental role in the biology of pro- and eukaryotic organisms. To cope with sunlight-associated stresses e.g., high temperatures, UV radiation, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, desiccation, and osmotic stress, it is important for organisms to accurately sense and respond to changes in light. The benefits of light are obvious for green organisms such as cyanobacteria, algae and plants which use light as an energy source (photosynthesis). Fungi that can share light-flooded habitats with phototrophs may profit from their excess photosynthetic products. Examples are the plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea, the gray mold fungus, and the rock inhabitant Knufia petricola, a microcolonial black fungus which forms multispecies biofilms with bacteria and algae.
Bakterielle Biofilme stellen in medizinischen und industriellen Bereichen ein ernsthaftes Problem dar. Eine der größten gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen liegt in der zunehmenden Resistenz von Bakterien gegen Biozide, die bei antimikrobiellen Behandlungen eingesetzt werden, z.B. durch übermäßigen Einsatz in Medizin, Industrie und Landwirtschaft oder durch Reinigung und Desinfektion in Privathaushalten. Daher sind neue effiziente bakterienabweisende Strategien, die den Einsatz von Bioziden vermeiden, dringend erforderlich.
Ein vielversprechender Weg zur Erzielung bakterienabweisender Oberflächen liegt in der berührungslosen und aseptischen großflächigen Laserbearbeitung von technischen Oberflächen. Maßgeschneiderte Oberflächentexturen, ermöglicht durch verschiedene Laserbearbeitungsstrategien, die zu topographischen Skalen im Bereich von Nanometern bis Mikrometern führen, können eine Lösung für diese Herausforderung darstellen.
In dem Vortrag wird ein Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der Technik bei der subtraktiven Texturierung von Laseroberflächen zur Kontrolle der Biofilmbildung bei verschiedenen Bakterienstämmen und in unterschiedlichen Umgebungen gegeben. Auf der Grundlage spezifischer Eigenschaften von Bakterien und laserbearbeiteten Oberflächen werden die Herausforderungen antimikrobieller Oberflächendesigns erörtert und zukünftige Richtungen aufgezeigt.
Einstufung von Aschen und Schlacken aus der Abfallverbrennung im Hinblick auf die weitere Verwertung
(2024)
There are two mirror entries in the European Waste Catalogue for bottom ash and slag from waste incineration: 19 01 11* and 19 01 12. Entry 19 01 11* describes a waste material containing hazardous substances. It was shown that only the hazardous property HP14 (ecotoxic) is of relevance for the classification. If substances with the hazard statement code (HSC) H400, H410, H411, H412 and H413 are present in incineration bottom ash (IBA) above certain level the waste is classified as hazardous, otherwise it is non-hazardous (in this case 19 01 12). It was further shown that only Cu, Zn and Pb compounds have an impact on the classification using a summation rule: 100xΣ c(H410) + 10xΣ c(H411) + Σ c(H412). Limit value is 25 percent. It is obvious that H410 substances have the highest impact. Therefore, the knowledge of the elemental composition of IBA is not sufficient because the content of distinct chemical compounds (with the respective molecular weight) is needed. When the exact speciation is not known a worst-case approach has to be applied. A practical guideline for the estimation of HP14 was developed based on the definition of 4 substance groups: 1. Metals and alloys, 2. Water-soluble substances, 3. Oxides and carbonates and 4. Substances not soluble in weak acids. In substance group 1 only fine Zn powder has the HSC H410. Water-soluble substances are assumed to be H410 substances. Their concentrations are, however, regularly below the cut-off value of 0.1 %. The amount of substance group 3 is estimated by a selective extraction with maleic acid. According to the worst-case approach it is assumed that CuCO3xCu(OH)2 and ZnO represent the respective Cu and Zn species in IBA because these substances have the highest stochiometric factor. Even with this worst-case approach results from operators of IBA treatment plant showed that the limit value of 25 % is not exceeded.
The requirements for utilization of IBA in Germany are defined in the Secondary
Building Materials Decree (Ersatzbaustoffverordnung EBV) which was set into force in August 2023. Leaching methods (batch test or column test) with a liquid-to-solid ratio of 2 l/kg are applied. IBA fulfills the requirements for class HMVA-2. Actually, even a classification of IBA as hazardous (i.e 19 01 11*) would not affect utilization but handling and transport.
Here, we show that calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) can be directly, rapidly and reversibly converted to calcium sulfate hemihydrate (bassanite) in high salinity solutions (brines). The optimum conditions for the efficient production of bassanite in a short time (<5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the better-known behaviour of the bassanite phase in low-salt environments. In low-salinity aqueous solutions, bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion does not occur in pure water. Interestingly, the high-salinity transformation of gypsum-to-bassanite has been reported by many authors and used in practice for several decades, although its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures was inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline phase for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.
Reliable measurement of the size of polydisperse, complex-shaped commercial nanopowders is a difficult but necessary task, e.g., for regulatory requirements and toxicity risk assessment. Suitable methods exist for the accurate characterization of the size of non-aggregated, stabilized, spherical and monodisperse nanoparticles. In contrast, industrial nanoscale powders usually require dedicated sample preparation procedures developed for the analysis method of choice. These nano-powders tend to agglomerate and/or aggregate, a behavior which in combination with an innate broad particle size distribution and irregular shape often significantly alters the achievable accuracy of the measured size parameters. The present study systematically tests two commercially available nanoscale powders using different sample preparation methods for correlative analysis by scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, Brunauer–Emmet–Teller method and differential mobility analysis. One focus was set on the sample preparation by embedding nanoparticles in carbon-based hot-mounting resin. Literature on this topic is scarce and the accuracy of the data extracted from cross sections of these particles is unclearly stated. In this paper systematic simulations on the deviation of the size parameters of well-defined series of nanoparticles with different shapes from the nominal value were carried out and the contributing factors are discussed.
Fused cement clinker can be produced from molten basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) by way of a reductive thermochemical treatment. During the thermochemical treatment, oxidic iron is reduced to metallic iron and separated. The resulting low-iron slag has a chemical and mineralogical composition similar to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) clinker. In this study, the hydraulic reactivity of the fused clinker from BOFS with and without gypsum was investigated using isothermal calorimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, in situ X-ray diffraction and powder X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, a synthetic fused clinker without foreign ions and fused clinker produced by a mixture of both materials was studied. The hydraulic reaction of the fused clinker from BOFS was considerably slower than that of OPC. However, the reaction can be accelerated by adding gypsum as a sulfate carrier. Furthermore, the results showed an increased reaction rate with decreasing content of foreign ions such as Fe, P or Mn.
Here, we report a comparative study of different sum parameter analysis methods for the extraction of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from manufactured consumer products, which can be measured by combustion ion chromatography (CIC). Therefore, a hydrolysis-based extraction method was further developed, which accounts for the addition of hydrolyzable covalently bound polyfluoroalkylated side-chain polymers (SFPs) to the extractable organic fluorine portion of the mass balance proposed as "hydrolyzable organically bound fluorine" (HOF). To test this hypothesis, the method was applied to 39 different consumer products containing fluoropolymers or monomeric PFAS taken from four different categories: outdoor textiles, paper packaging, carpeting, and permanent baking sheets. We also evaluated the method's efficiency by extracting four synthesized fluorotelomer polyacrylate reference compounds. The total fluorine (TF) and extractable organically bound fluorine (EOF) values were measured through CIC using established protocols. The TF values ranged from sub-ppb to %-levels, depending on the compound class. All samples showed results for hydrolyzed organofluorine (HOF) between 0.03 and 76.3 μg/g, while most EOF values were lower (<LOD to 58.1 μg/g). Moreover, the methods were contrasted with the "total hydrolyzable precursor" (THP) assay analyzed using gas-chromatography coupled mass spectrometry (GC-MS), which yielded concentrations of 6:2–10:2 fluorotelomer alcohols (<LOD-568 μg/g) for textile and paper samples. Furthermore, targeted analytical investigation of 25 compounds via liquid chromatography coupled tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was conducted and accounted for significantly lower sum amounts (<LOD-0.98 μg PFAS/g). To estimate the fluorine mass balance of all methods, the fluorine levels of target analytical data were calculated and compared to the sum parameter values and evaluated. Finally, the efficiency of the extraction method was approximated by the recovery analysis of four selected SFP model compounds compared to their TF values, yielding 36.7–74.0% after extraction and 3.8–36.3% after processing the extract for the HOF sum parameter.
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4ᐧ0.5H2O), also known as bassanite, has been used as a precursor to produce gypsum (dihydrate, CaSO4ᐧ2H2O) for various construction and decorative purposes since prehistoric times. The main route to obtain hemihydrate is a thermal treatment of gypsum at temperatures typically between 150 °C and 200 °C to remove some of the structural water.
In this contribution, we introduce (Fig. 1) a more efficient and sustainable method (T < 100 °C) that enables the direct, rapid, and reversibly conversion of gypsum to bassanite using reusable high salinity aqueous solutions (brines with c[NaCl] > 4 M). The optimum conditions for the efficientproduction of bassanite in a short time (< 5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the typical behaviour of the bassanite phase in low salt environments.
Traditionally, hemihydrate is obtained through a solid state thermal treatment because bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite in aqueous solutions, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion should not occur in water. Its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures is inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline structure for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.
Re-melting of scrap in an electric arc furnace (EAF) results in the accumulation of filter dust from off-gas treatment that predominantly consists of iron and zinc oxides. Filter dust is classified as hazardous waste due to its high contents of potentially toxic or ecotoxic elements such as Pb, Cr, Cd, and As. A promising processing route for this waste is selective chlorination, in which the non-ferrous metal oxides are chlorinated and selectively evaporated in form of their respective chlorides from the remaining solids via the process gas flow. Here, we investigate stepwise thermochemical treatment of EAF dust with either waste iron(II) chloride solution or hydrochloric acid at 650, 800, and 1100 ◦C. The Zn and Pb contents of the thermochemically processed EAF dust could be lowered from 29.9% and 1.63% to 0.09% and 0.004%, respectively. Stepwise heating allowed high separation between zinc chloride at the 650 ◦C step and sodium-, potassium-, and lead-containing chlorides at higher temperatures. Furthermore, the lab-scale results were transferred to the use of an experimental rotary kiln highlighting the possibilities of upscaling the presented process. Selective chlorination of EAF dust with liquid chlorine donors is, therefore, suggested as a potential recycling method for Zn-enriched steelworks dusts.
In industrialised countries more than 80% of the time is spent indoors. Products, such as building materials and furniture, emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are therefore ubiquitous in indoor air. VOC in combination may, under certain environmental and occupational conditions, result in reported sensory irritation and health complaints. Emission concentrations can become further elevated in new or refurbished buildings where the rate of air exchange with fresh ambient air may be limited due to improved energy saving aspects. A healthy indoor environment can be achieved by controlling the sources and by eliminating or limiting the release of harmful substances into the air. One way is to use (building) materials proved to be low emitting. Meanwhile, a worldwide network of professional commercial and non-commercial laboratories performing emission tests for the evaluation of products for interior use has been established. Therefore, comparability of test results must be ensured. A laboratory’s proficiency can be proven by internal and external validation measures that both include the application of suitable emission reference materials (ERM). For the emission test chamber procedure according to EN 16516, no artificial ERM is commercially available. The EU-funded EMPIR project MetrIAQ aims to fill this gap by developing new and improved ERMs. The goal is to obtain a material with a reproducible and temporally constant compound release (less than 10 % variability over 14 days). Two approaches were tested: the impregnation of porous materials with VOC, and the encapsulation of VOC in polymer microcapsules. Impregnation is performed with help of an autoclave and supercritical CO2. The encapsulation is done by interfacial polymerisation on VOC droplets. For both approaches, synthesis and/or material parameters were varied to obtain an optimal ERM. Findings about the optimisation of ERM generation, as well as performance of the best emission reference materials, will be presented.
Nowadays, people spend most of their time indoors. Thus, a good indoor air quality is important. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from furniture and building materials can cause health complaints1. Quantitative VOC-emission testing is carried out under standardized conditions in emission test chambers. In the presented project an emission reference material (ERM) is developed that emits a defined mixture of VOCs which is required for quality assurance and -control (QA/QC) measures. Porous materials (e.g zeolites, activated carbons, MOFs or aerogels) are used as reservoir materials and impregnated with VOC. The porous materials are selected, among others, by their pore size, pore size distribution, polarity and availability. Due to their regular pore structure zeolites are tested at first. For a prediction of the emission profile, the ERM is supposed to exhibit a constant emission rate over time. The aim is a stability of ≤ 10 % change in the emission rate over a minimum of 14 days.
Method
For impregnation, the material is placed into an autoclave inside a rotatable basket. The VOC is added and the autoclave is closed. Afterwards, CO2 is inserted. The closed system is then heated to the supercritical point of CO2 (31 °C, 73.75 bar). In this state, the CO2 acts as solvent for the VOC. By rotating the basket, the distribution of the VOC is ensured. After a few minutes, the pressure is decreased slowly and the CO2 is released. For the determination of the emission profile, the impregnated sample is placed into an emission test chamber. These chambers can be operated either with dry or humid air (50 ± 5 % rel. humidity). Every second to third day, air samples are taken and analyzed by gas chromatography. For an ideal impregnation, several different pressures and temperatures as well as impregnation times are tested.
Results
Two zeolite materials tested in dry air conditions reach emission profiles with a decrease of less than 10 % over 14 days (heptane and toluene, respectively). Further it was discovered that smaller pellets of the same zeolite show better results than bigger particles. When the pore size of a zeolite is too small, e.g. 0.3 nm, the VOC cannot be absorbed sufficiently. The main disadvantage of zeolites is their hygroscopicity because it has a large impact on the release of VOC when they are used in emission test chambers under standardized test conditions (23 °C, 50 % rel. humidity). Activated carbons have emission profiles with a larger change over 14 days. However, the high hydrophobicity allows measurements in humid air conditions which was not possible with the before mentioned hygroscopic zeolites. It is possible to impregnate powdered materials as well, and thus powdered non-hygroscopic (n.h.) zeolites were impregnated. Their emission profiles are comparable to those of the activated carbons. The use of methylated hygroscopic zeolites with a decrease in hygroscopicity did not yield successful emission measurements. The change over 14 days is calculated only for the stable phase (~250–300 h).
The desired stability of ≤ 10 % change of the emission rate over 14 days could already be reached under dry testing conditions. Further investigations under humid conditions show that zeolites with high Si/Al-ratios are non-hygroscopic and comparable to activated carbons (20–30 % change). The next step is to reduce the change in the emission rate of these materials to the aimed ≤ 10 % over 14 days.
The emission of ultrafine particles from small desktop Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printers has been frequently investigated in the past years. However, the vast majority of FFF emission and exposure studies have not considered the possible occurrence of particles below the typical detection limit of Condensation Particle Counters and could have systematically underestimated the total particle emission as well as the related exposure risks. Therefore, we comparatively measured particle number concentrations and size distributions of sub-4 nm particles with two commercially available diethylene glycol-based instruments – the TSI 3757 Nano Enhancer and the Airmodus A10 Particle Size Magnifier. Both instruments were evaluated for their suitability of measuring FFF-3D printing emissions in the sub-4 nm size range while operated as a particle counter or as a particle size spectrometer. For particle counting, both instruments match best when the Airmodus system was adjusted to a cut-off of 1.5 nm. For size spectroscopy, both instruments show limitations due to either the fast dynamics or rather low levels of particle emissions from FFF-3D printing in this range. The effects are discussed in detail in this article. The findings could be used to implement sub-4 nm particle measurement in future emission or exposure studies, but also for the development of standard test protocols for FFF-3D printing emissions.
Im Folgenden soll über aktuelle Diskussionen und Arbeitsschwerpunkte im Fachbeirat der BAM und von der Zulassungsstelle berichtet werden. Es werden Änderungen im Zusammenhang mit der Zulassungsrichtlinie für Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen vorgestellt. Es wird über die aktuelle Diskussion über die Anforderungen z. B. an metallische Sensoren für Dichtungskontrollsysteme berichtet. Änderungen der Fremdprüfung von sogenannten Sandschutzmatten, des Standards zur Qualitätsüberwachung (SQÜ) von Kunststoff Dränelementen (KDE) und der Anpassung der Formulierungen zum Überbau der in Abdichtungen verwendeten Produkte werden aufgezeigt.
Im Folgenden soll über aktuelle Diskussionen und Arbeitsschwerpunkte im Fachbeirat der BAM und von der Zulassungsstelle berichtet werden. Es werden Änderungen im Zusammenhang mit der Zulassungsrichtlinie für Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen vorgestellt. Es wird über die aktuelle Diskussion über die Anforderungen z. B. an metallische Sensoren für Dichtungskontrollsysteme berichtet. Änderungen der Fremdprüfung von sogenannten Sandschutzmatten, des Standards zur Qualitätsüberwachung (SQÜ) von Kunststoff Dränelementen (KDE) und der Anpassung der Formulierungen zum Überbau der in Abdichtungen verwendeten Produkte werden aufgezeigt.
The present work demonstrates a sustainable approach of using relatively coarser iron ore particles for ironmaking. The motivation is to reduce the energy consumption in the milling of the iron ore by utilizing coarser iron ore particles (+0.05 mm) and to select a suitable binder for improving pellet properties. Iron ore fines in the range of 0.05–0.25 mm was selected and classified into three size ranges. Fluxed iron ore pellets were prepared using lime as a binder for the basicity of 0, 1, and 2. Reduction of these pellets with a packed bed of coal fines was performed in the temperature range of 900–1200 °C for a duration of 30–120 min. The direct reduction kinetics of the iron ore pellets were studied by employing diffusion and chemical reaction control models to the experimental data. The results show that pellets made with coarser iron ore particles have improved reduction behavior and kinetics. The reduction reaction is found to be a mixed control. The activation energy for the reduction reaction varies from 44.3 to 74.76 kJ mol−1 as iron ore particle size decreases from 0.25 to 0.05 mm and basicity increases from 0 to 2.
The ISO 16000-6 standard gives directions to adapt the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor and test chamber air to very volatile organic compounds (VVOCs). The same techniques with sorbent-based active sampling, thermal desorption and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) should be used. However, VVOCs require gaseous standards, an adapted GC column and a reliable sampling adsorbent. This work presents experimental results to tackle those three experimental gaps. A stable standard gas mixture containing 47 VVOCs, 13 VOCs and an internal standard was successfully generated. It was employed to study the suitability of seven types of chromatography columns. The use of PLOT (Porous Layer Open Tubular) columns such as PoraBOND Q is well suitable for VVOC analysis. The recoveries of the 60 analytes on a total of 16 adsorbents and their combinations were determined: A combination of the graphitized carbon black Carbograph 5TD 40/60 and the carbon molecular sieve CarbosieveTM SII showed great recoveries for all analytes. Carbon molecular sieves adsorb water which can impair the analysis. A dry purge of the multi-sorbent in the sampling direction led to a complete water removal and promising recoveries of the analytes.
The fungus Botrytis cinerea (Botryotinia fuckeliana) infects more than 500 plant species and causes a wide range of symptoms: soft rots, accompanied by collapse and water-soaking of tissues followed by the appearance of gray masses of conidia on leaves and soft fruits (gray mold), and spots that may turn brown to full-scale soft rotting on flower petals (Botrytis blight). In general, B. cinerea is responsible for severe economic losses that are either due to the damage of growing plants in the field or the rot of harvested fruits, flowers, and vegetables during storage under cold and humid conditions. B. cinerea has adapted to the plant host and its environment by evolving strategies to use plant tissues for proliferation in terms of a necrotrophic lifestyle, and to survive biotic stresses (host responses) as well as abiotic factors of the host’s environment such as sunlight and concomitant stresses. B. cinerea maintains a complex regulatory network of light-sensitive proteins and signal transduction pathways to use light for coordinating stress responses, virulence, and reproduction. Different light-controlled reproduction cycles enable B. cinerea to live in moderate climate zones by infecting and propagating in summer and resting in winter when green host tissues are unavailable.
The chemical state of antimony and vanadium species in municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash
(2023)
Due to the large quantity as residual mineral waste, municipal solid waste incineration - bottom ash (MSWI-BA) is an interesting secondary raw material that can be utilized for road construction. However, leaching of chloride, sulfate and potentially hazardous heavy metals from MSWSI-BA into the environment may cause problems in utilization of it in civil engineering. In a previous study, we performed a long-term leaching test of MSWI-BA in a lysimeter for almost six years to investigate the efficiency of the treatment process on the release of hazardous substances. While concentrations of chloride, sulfate and the majority of the heavy metals started to decrease rapidly with progressive liquid-to-solid ratio (L/S), the ecotoxic hazardous elements antimony (Sb) and vanadium (V) behaved differently. To unravel these unusual release behaviors and the oxyanion-formation of Sb and V we will apply HERFD-XANES spectroscopy to analyze their chemical state.
In 2005, a team of Polish archaeologists discovered three Coptic codices, two on papyrus and one on parchment, in the rubbish dump of a hermitage at Sheik Abd el-Gurna, Egypt. While the parchment codex and the remains of the bindings of the papyrus ones have been conserved, the text blocks of the papyrus codices were opened and disassembled and after being disinfected remained untouched for nearly 15 years, until the current project started. Currently, all three books are stored in the collection of the Coptic Museum in Cairo. Our team undertook the conservation of and archaeometric research on the papyrus codices. The first of the books contains the Canons of Pseudo-Basil, while the second is an Encomium of St. Pisenthios. Both codices have been palaeographically dated to the seventh-eighth centuries CE. In this paper, we describe our project and present the results of the work carried out on the Canons of Pseudo-Basil. Our work involved photography in transmitted light, measurements of the thickness of the papyrus leaves, and digital microscopy under three-light illumination. These measurements allowed us to determine the types of the inks and characterize the papyrus writing substrate. For conservation, we used a novel method developed in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin that comprises suspending papyrus folios on a translucent, extremely thin Japanese paper inside glass frames without the use of adhesives.In 2005, a team of Polish archaeologists discovered three Coptic codices, two on papyrus and one on parchment, in the rubbish dump of a hermitage at Sheik Abd el-Gurna, Egypt. While the parchment codex and the remains of the bindings of the papyrus ones have been conserved, the text blocks of the papyrus codices were opened and disassembled and after being disinfected remained untouched for nearly 15 years, until the current project started. Currently, all three books are stored in the collection of the Coptic Museum in Cairo. Our team undertook the conservation of and archaeometric research on the papyrus codices. The first of the books contains the Canons of Pseudo-Basil, while the second is an Encomium of St. Pisenthios. Both codices have been palaeographically dated to the seventh-eighth centuries CE. In this paper, we describe our project and present the results of the work carried out on the Canons of Pseudo-Basil. Our work involved photography in transmitted light, measurements of the thickness of the papyrus leaves, and digital microscopy under three-light illumination. These measurements allowed us to determine the types of the inks and characterize the papyrus writing substrate. For conservation, we used a novel method developed in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin that comprises suspending papyrus folios on a translucent, extremely thin Japanese paper inside glass frames without the use of adhesives.
Iron is arguably the most essential metal in living organisms. For rock-inhabiting fungi its acquisition might be unconventional as they (1) tend to inhabit iron-deficient, oxygen-rich surfaces like marble monuments and solar panels and (2) produce the black, iron-adsorbing pigment melanin. We used a range of analytical methods, ongoing mineral dissolution experiments and gene deletion mutants of the model rock-inhabiting fungus Knufia petricola to figure out the mechanisms and substrate deteriorating effects of iron uptake by these organisms. To study both siderophore-mediated and reductive iron assimilation (RIA), genes like sidC, encoding a putative siderophore synthetase and ftr1 and fet3 encoding the subunits of an iron permease-oxidase were deleted.
At iron deficient conditions, growth of the wild type (WT) and ΔsidC mutant was similar, whereas growth of the Δftr1-fet3 mutant and the double mutant ΔsidC/Δftr1-fet3 was diminished and absent, respectively. We were not able to detect the siderophore of K. petricola and the WT and mutants were not able to grow at low concentrations of strong iron chelators. However, in a cross-feeding experiment, an overexpression strain of sidC allowed more growth of ΔsidC/Δftr1-fet3 on iron deficient medium than the WT, whereas the ΔsidC mutant could not do so at all. Compared to the WT, the sidC overexpression strain also withstood oxidative stress better and had a shorter lag time and higher growth rate. Combined, these results indicate that K. petricola relies more on RIA than siderophore-mediated uptake as it likely excretes low quantities of a primarily intracellular siderophore. Interestingly, Δftr1-fet3 had a higher iron content than the WT at iron deficient conditions. This difference disappeared upon deletion of melanin synthesis (Δpks1 vs. Δpks1/Δftr1-fet3): melanin-bound iron can likely not be used without RIA. K. petricola’s chelation incapacity implies a habitat free of competition for iron while offering us a mitigation strategy.
Microscopic knowledge of the structural, energetic, and electronic properties of scandium fluoride is still incomplete despite the relevance of this material as an intermediate for the manufacturing of Al−Sc alloys. In a work based on first-principles calculations and X-ray spectroscopy, we assess the stability and electronic structure of six computationally predicted ScF3 polymorphs, two of which correspond to experimentally resolved single-crystal phases. In the theoretical analysis based on density functional theory (DFT), we identify similarities among the polymorphs based on their formation energies, chargedensity distribution, and electronic properties (band gaps and density of states). We find striking analogies between the results obtained for the ow- and high-temperature phases of the material, indirectly confirming that the transition occurring between them mainly consists of a rigid rotation of the lattice. With this knowledge, we examine the X-ray absorption spectra from the Sc and F K-edge contrasting firstprinciples results obtained from the solution of the Bethe−Salpeter equation on top of all-electron DFT with high-energy-resolution fluorescence detection measurements. Analysis of the computational results sheds light on the electronic origin of the absorption maxima and provides information on the prominent excitonic effects that characterize all spectra. A comparison with measurements confirms that the sample is mainly composed of the high- and low-temperature polymorphs of ScF3. However, some fine details in the experimental results suggest that the probed powder sample may contain defects and/or residual traces of metastable polymorphs.
Bacterial biofilms can pose a serious health risk to humans and are less susceptible
to antibiotics and disinfection than planktonic bacteria. Here, a novel method
for biofilm eradication based on antimicrobial photodynamic therapy utilizing
a nanoparticle in conjunction with a BODIPY derivative as photosensitizer was
developed. Reactive oxygen species are generated upon illumination with
visible light and lead to a strong, controllable and persistent eradication of
both planktonic bacteria and biofilms. One of the biggest challenges in biofilm
eradication is the penetration of the antimicrobial agent into the biofilm and
its matrix. A biocompatible hydrophilic nanoparticle was utilized as a delivery
system for the hydrophobic BODIPY dye and enabled its accumulation within the
biofilm. This key feature of delivering the antimicrobial agent to the site of action
where it is activated resulted in effective eradication of all tested biofilms. Here,
3 bacterial species that commonly form clinically relevant pathogenic biofilms
were selected: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus
mutans. The development of this antimicrobial photodynamic therapy tool for
biofilm eradication takes a promising step towards new methods for the much
needed treatment of pathogenic biofilms.
Methane emission by terrestrial invertebrates is restricted to millipedes, termites, cockroaches, and scarab beetles. The arthropod-associated archaea known to date belong to the orders Methanobacteriales, Methanomassiliicoccales, Methanomicrobiales, and Methanosarcinales, and in a few cases also to nonmethanogenic Nitrososphaerales and Bathyarchaeales. However, all major host groups are severely undersampled, and the taxonomy of existing lineages is not well developed. Full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences and genomes of arthropod-associated archaea are scarce, reference databases lack resolution, and the names of many taxa are either not validly published or under-classified and require revision. Here, we investigated the diversity of archaea in a wide range of methane-emitting arthropods, combining phylogenomic analysis of isolates and metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) with amplicon sequencing of full-length 16S rRNA genes. Our results allowed us to describe numerous new species in hitherto undescribed taxa among the orders Methanobacteriales (Methanacia, Methanarmilla, Methanobaculum, Methanobinarius, Methanocatella, Methanoflexus, Methanorudis, and Methanovirga, all gen. nova), Methanomicrobiales (Methanofilum and Methanorbis, both gen. nova), Methanosarcinales (Methanofrustulum and Methanolapillus, both gen. nova), Methanomassiliicoccales (Methanomethylophilaceae fam. nov., Methanarcanum, Methanogranum, Methanomethylophilus, Methanomicula, Methanoplasma, Methanoprimaticola, all gen. nova), and the new family Bathycorpusculaceae (Bathycorpusculum gen. nov.). Reclassification of amplicon libraries from this and previous studies using this new taxonomic framework revealed that arthropods harbor only CO2 and methyl-reducing hydrogenotrophic methanogens.
Numerous genus-level lineages appear to be present exclusively in arthropods,suggesting long evolutionary trajectories with their termite, cockroach, and millipede hosts, and a radiation into various microhabitats and ecological nichesprovided by their digestive tracts (e.g., hindgut compartments, gut wall, or anaerobic protists). The distribution patterns among the different host groups are often complex, indicating a mixed mode of transmission and a parallel evolution of invertebrate and vertebrate-associated lineages.
Bacterial biofilms pose serious problems in medical and industrial settings. One of the major societal challenges lies in the increasing resistance of bacteria against biocides used in antimicrobial treatments, e.g., via overabundant use in medicine, industry, and agriculture or cleaning and disinfection in private households. Hence, new efficient bacteria-repellent strategies avoiding the use of biocides are strongly desired. One promising route to achieve bacteria-repellent surfaces lies in the contactless and aseptic large-area laser-processing of technical surfaces. Tailored surface textures, enabled by different laser-processing strategies that result in topographic scales ranging from nanometers to micrometers may provide a solution to this challenge. This article presents a current state-of-the-art review of laser-surface subtractive texturing approaches for controlling the biofilm formation for different bacterial strains and in different environments. Based on specific properties of bacteria and laser-processed surfaces, the challenges of anti-microbial surface designs are discussed, and future directions will be outlined.
Fungal pigments such as melanin and carotenoids are distinctive markers of animal and plant pathogenic fungi as well as their environmental relatives. These complex pigments play important roles in pathogenicity and stress tolerance while also being useful as biomarkers. Accordingly, it is important to be able to identify in situ the pigments in black fungi, a group of clinical and environmental importance. In this study, wild-type and genetically modified strains of Knufia petricola A95 and wild fungal cells attached to ancient rock were investigated for their spectroscopic and microscopic Raman features and morphological appearance. Knockout mutants of melanin synthesis genes pks1 (polyketide synthase), sdh1 (scytalone dehydratase), and both pks1 and the carotenoid synthesis gene phd1 (phytoene desaturase) were studied We applied two different Raman microscopes using two lasers, with 633 nm and 488 nm wavelengths. We analyzed and compared Raman spectra between the measured reference substances and the mutant and wild-type strains. In the wild strain WT:A95, the peaks close to melanin peals were found at 1353 cm−1 and 1611 cm−1. There are no characteristic melanin peaks at 1580–1600 cm−1 and around 1350 cm−1 at the spectrum of the Δpks1/Δphd1 mutant and the Δsdh1 mutant. The Δpks1 mutant spectrum has the peaks at the beta-carotene v2 C-C in-plane stretch at 1155 cm−1 and v3 C-CH3 deformation at 1005 cm−1. The peaks of carotenoids and melanin were found in all mutants and the wild strain, except the Δpks1/Δphd1 mutant. Raman spectra allow for discrimination between the various pigments. Hence, interactions between natural fungal melanin, as well as other protective pigments, and complex environmental matrices can be characterized on a range of spatial and temporal scales.
Die Bezeichnung „Tinte auf Papier“ bietet einen guten Einstieg in die Beschreibung der Materialität von Musikhandschriften; so haben sich zahlreiche Manuskripte erhalten, die mit Eisengallustinte auf Hadernpapier verfasst wurden.
Das Papier besteht aus Fasern meist pflanzlicher Herkunft und wird durch Entwässerung einer Fasersuspension auf einem Sieb gebildet. Der Abdruck des Schöpfsiebes (die Papierstruktur) und ein vorhandenes Wasserzeichen bieten Anhaltspunkte für Provenienz und Datierung; daneben erlaubt die Analyse der Fasern, der Füllstoffe und der Leimung eine weitere Charakterisierung des Schriftträgers.
Spätestens seit dem Mittelalter sind es Eisengallustinten, die das schwarze bis bräunliche Erscheinungsbild vieler Manuskripte auf Papier hervorrufen. Daneben lassen sich auch schwarze Rußtuschen oder farbige Auszeichnungstuschen nachweisen. Eisengallustinten werden durch Mischung einer eisenhaltigen Komponente mit Gerbstoffen hergestellt. Eisensulfat ist die am häufigsten genannte Eisen liefernde Zutat, daneben sind aber auch eisenhaltige Minerale, Nägel oder Rost denkbar. Die Gallussäure leitet sich ab aus den Galläpfeln, der krankhaften Veränderung einzelner Planzenteile verschiedener Eichenarten. Diese werden durch die Eiablage von Schlupfwespen hervorgerufen.
Wie schon beim Papier ermöglicht der materialanalytische Nachweis charakteristischer Beimischungen oder Verunreinigungen innerhalb der Tinten die Beantwortung kulturhistorischer Fragestellungen – gemeint sind hier die Unterscheidung von Original und Korrektur oder die Sichtbarmachung späterer Ergänzungen.
Black writing materials of different types and compositions have varied in use over time and different geographical regions. With this paper, we would like to contribute to their study by listing and reviewing recipes for black writing inks that were in circulation in the Carolingian Empire as well as by referencing the archaeometric analyses of the black inks used in the manuscripts. The studies presented here that involved the humanities and natural sciences provide new insights into how the scholars of the early Medieval Ages organized manuscripts.
AbstractThis work addresses the critical need for multifunctional materials and substrate‐independent high‐precision surface modification techniques that are essential for advancing microdevices and sensing elements. To overcome existing limitations, the versatility of mussel‐inspired materials (MIMs) is combined with state‐of‐the‐art multiphoton direct laser writing (DLW) microfabrication. In this way, 2D and 3D MIM microstructures of complex designs are demonstrated with sub‐micron to micron resolution and extensive post‐functionalization capabilities. This study includes polydopamine (PDA), mussel‐inspired linear, and dendritic polyglycerols (MI‐lPG and MI‐dPG), allowing their direct microstructure on the substrate of choice with the option to tailor the patterned topography and morphology in a controllable manner. The functionality potential of MIMs is demonstrated by successfully immobilizing and detecting single‐stranded DNA on MIM micropattern and nanoarray surfaces. In addition, easy modification of MIM microstructure with silver nanoparticles without the need of any reducing agent is shown. The methodology developed here enables the integration of MIMs in advanced applications where precise surface functionalization is essential.
Throughout their life cycles—from production, usage, through to disposal—materials and products interact with the environment (water, soil, and air). At the same time, they are exposed to environmental influences and, through their emissions, have an impact on the environment, people, and health. Accelerated experimental testing processes can be used to predict the long-term environmental consequences of innovative products before these actually enter the environment.
We are living in a material world. Building materials, geosynthetics, wooden toys, soil, nanomaterials, composites, wastes and more are research subjects examined by the authors of this book. The interactions of materials with the environment are manifold. Therefore, it is important to assess the environmental impact of these interactions. Some answers to how this task can be achieved are given in this Special Issue.
Colours on East Asian Maps
(2023)
Maps and colours have a close connection. Drawn or printed in black on white, subsequently added colours enhance maps with additional information. Colours were not just there to improve maps aesthetically, but they regulated how they were read and thus reinforced their meanings, significances and ideas. Colour is an important key to a more precise understanding of the map’s purposes and uses; moreover, colours are also an important aspect of a map’s materiality. The material scientific analysis makes it possible to find out more about the making of colours and the process of colouring maps. By skillfully deploying colours, map colourists were able to create mimetic representations of nature or codify information in an abstract form. The use of colours involved many considerations as to the materials. ‘Reading’ colours in this way gives a glimpse into the social lives of mapmakers as well as map users and reveals the complexity of the historical and social context in which maps were produced and how the maps were actually made. Within the scope of the three-year joint research project Coloured Maps (2018–2021), we undertook an in-depth and systematic study of hand-drawn and hand-coloured maps from East Asia in the Museum am Rothenbaum (MARKK) in Hamburg and produced between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries.
With a multi-perspective approach and transdisciplinary methods (humanities and the sciences), we were able to pool and compare the research results from different fields of research on Asian maps. The aim of this publication is to provide a first general overview of the subject of colours on maps in East Asia in the period from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century and to stimulate further research on the topic.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen of considerable medical importance, owing to its pronounced antibiotic tolerance and association with cystic fibrosis and other life-threatening diseases. The aim of this study was to highlight the genes responsible for P. aeruginosa biofilm tolerance to antibiotics and thereby identify potential new targets for the development of drugs against biofilm-related infections. By developing a novel screening approach and utilizing a public P. aeruginosa transposon insertion library, several biofilm-relevant genes were identified. The Pf phage gene (PA0720) and flagellin gene (fliC) conferred biofilm-specific tolerance to gentamicin. Compared with the reference biofilms, the biofilms formed by PA0720 and fliC mutants were completely eliminated with a 4-fold-lower gentamicin concentration. Furthermore, the mreC, pprB, coxC, and PA3785 genes were demonstrated to play major roles in enhancing biofilm tolerance to gentamicin. The analysis of biofilm-relevant genes performed in this study provides important novel insights into the understanding of P. aeruginosa antibiotic tolerance, which will facilitate the detection of antibiotic resistance and the development of antibiofilm strategies against P. aeruginosa.
The soil-feeding habit is an evolutionary novelty found in some advanced groups of termites. The study of such groups is important to revealing interesting adaptations to this way-of-life. The genus Verrucositermes is one such example, characterized by peculiar outgrowths on the head capsule, antennae and maxillary palps, which are not found in any other termite. These structures have been hypothesized to be linked to the presence of a new exocrine organ, the rostral gland, whose structure has remained unexplored.
We have thus studied the ultrastructure of the epidermal layer of the head capsule of Verrucositermes tuberosus soldiers.We describe the ultrastructure of the rostral gland, which consists of class 3 secretory cells only. The dominant secretory organelles comprise rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which provide secretions delivered to the surface of the head, likely made of peptide-derived components of unclear function. We discuss a possible role of the rostral gland of soldiers as an adaptation to the frequent encounter with soil pathogens during search for new food resources.
Vortrag über die Regelungen der AbfKlärV bezüglich P-Rückgewinnung. Diskussion der Auswirkung einer konzentrationsbezogenen Grenze auf die Pflicht zur P-Rückgewinnung. Diskussion der nach AbfKlärV zulässigen analytischen Verfahren zur Bestimmung von P in Klärschlamm und Ableitung von Empfehlungen. Vorstellung der Ergebnisse eines Ringversuchs mit 28 Laboren.
Die Europäische Kommission präsentierte am 11. Dezember 2019 den European Green Deal, ein Konzept mit dem Ziel, bis zum Jahr 2050 als erster Kontinent Klimaneutralität zu erreichen. Mit Inkrafttreten der Verordnung (EU) 2021/1119 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Europäischen Rates am 29. Juli 2021 zur Schaffung des Rahmens für die Verwirklichung der Klimaneutralität („Europäisches Klimagesetz“), ist dieses, sowie das Ziel der Reduzierung der Nettotreibhausgasemissionen um mindestens 55 % bis 2030 in der Gesetzgebung der Europäischen Union verankert. Die Stahlindustrie in der Europäischen Union mit ca. 57 Mio. t Nettotreibhausgasemissionen im Jahr 2020, die annähernd 2 % der Emissionen der Europäischen Union ausmachen (Inklusive Energie: 127 Mio. t; 4 %), bekennt sich zur erheblichen Reduzierung der CO2-Emissionen bis zum Jahr 2030 und zum Erreichen der Klimaneutralität bis zum Jahr 2050. Als Schlüsselwege zur Verwirklichung dieser Zielstellung hat sie zum einen Smart Carbon Usage (SCU) und zum anderen Carbon Direct Avoidance (CDA) in einer Roadmap formuliert. SCU umfasst CO2-reduzierende Maßnahmen in bestehenden Eisen- und Stahlproduktionsprozessen, Carbon Capture and Storage- (CCS) sowie Carbon Capture and Usage-Technologien (CCU). Wohingegen bei CDA CO2-Emissionen durch erneuerbare elektrische Energie sowie wasserstoffbasierte Reduktion des Eisenerzes gar nicht erst entstehen sollen. Der CDA-Weg, der voraussichtlich beschritten werden muss, um eine klimaneutrale Stahlproduktion zu erreichen [38], geht mit einer kostenintensiven Transformation der Stahlproduktion einher, die bereits von vielen Unternehmen der Stahlindustrie eingeleitet wurde und von der im Wesentlichen die beiden in Europa vorherrschenden Stahlproduktionsrouten Hochofen-Konverter-Route und Elektrolichtbogenofen-Route betroffen sind. Die CO2-Emissionen der Hochofen-Konverter-Route, von denen der überwiegende Anteil auf den Hochofen fällt, liegen laut einer für das Jahr 2015 erstellten Studie bei 1921 kg CO2/t Rohstahl inklusive der CO2-Last der Pellets als Einsatzmaterial sowie der Emissionen der nachgelagerten Stranggießanlagen und Walzwerke. Im Hochofen wird das Eisenerz durch Kohlenstoff (C) bzw. Kohlenstoffmonoxid (CO) – welche größtenteils aus dem Koks, der dem Hochofen zusammen mit dem Möller über die Gicht zugeführten wird, stammen – unter Entstehung von Roheisen und Kohlenstoffdioxid (CO2) reduziert. Das neben dem CO2 im Prozessgas enthaltene CO wird zum Beispiel zur Energiegewinnung in peripheren Prozessen ebenfalls unter Bildung von CO2 verbrannt. Zusätzlich zur Reduktion hat der Koks unter anderem physikalische Aufgaben, wie die Errichtung eines Stützgerüstes und die Gewährleistung der Permeabilität im Hochofenprozess. Somit ist eine vollkommene Substitution des Kokses zur Vermeidung der CO2-Emissionen im Hochofen nicht denkbar. Viele Strategien der Stahlunternehmen zum Erreichen der Klimaziele verfolgen daher den Wechsel von der Rohstahlproduktion aus der Hochofen-Konverter-Route hin zur Rohstahlproduktion im Elektrolichtbogenofen (EAF – Electric Arc Furnace) mit dem Einsatz von direkt reduziertem Eisen (Eisenschwamm, DRI – Direct Reduced Iron) aus vorgelagerten Direktreduktionsanlagen, die mit Wasserstoff (H2) als Reduktionsmittel betrieben werden können. Dabei ist die Elektrostahlerzeugung kein neuer Prozess und nimmt in der europäischen Union bereits jetzt einen Anteil von ca. 44 % der Rohstahlproduktion ein, jedoch überwiegend mit Schrott als Einsatzmaterial. Bei der Elektrostahlerzeugung mit Schrotteinsatz fallen laut der oben genannten Studie von Lüngen für das Jahr 20152 410 kg CO2-Emissionen pro Tonne Rohstahl an, von denen der Großteil auf die CO2-Last der fremd bezogenen elektrischen Energie zurückzuführen ist und daher nicht im Produktionsprozess selbst entsteht. Auch die Direktreduktion wird schon seit 1972 in der weltweit zweiten und bis heute in Westeuropa einzigen Direktreduktionsanlage in Hamburg betrieben. Während hier noch mit einem Reduktionsgas gearbeitet wird, das hauptsächlich aus einem aus Erdgas gewonnenen Wasserstoff-Kohlenstoffmonoxid-Gemisch besteht, liegt eine aktuelle Kernherausforderung in der Bereitstellung des in der Größenordnung der von der Transformation betroffenen Rohstahlproduktionskapazitäten notwendigen, mit erneuerbarer elektrischer Energie hergestellten Wasserstoffs. Wird zusätzlich der Strom für das Einschmelzen im Elektrolichtbogenofen aus erneuerbaren Quellen gewonnen und werden schließlich als Brennstoff verwendete Kohle und als Brennstoff verwendetes Erdgas durch CO2-neutrale Bio-Brennstoffe ersetzt, sind sowohl für den Einsatz von mit Wasserstoff reduziertem und auf Pellets ohne CO2-Last basiertem Eisenschwamm als auch für den Einsatz von Schrott CO2-Emissionen von jeweils nur 60 kg CO2/t Rohstahl erreichbar, was eine Reduktion der Emissionen, ausgehend von der Konverter-Hochofen-Route um 97 % und ausgehend von der Schrott-Elektrolichtbogenofen-Route um 85 % bedeuten würde.
Der Betrieb von Elektrolichtbogenöfen macht die an den Standorten vorhandenen Konverter sowie die Infrastruktur für Behandlung und Transport des Roheisens überflüssig. Die fortwährende Nutzung dieser bestehenden Anlagenstruktur dient daher unter anderem als Motivation für die Entwicklung einer zweiten Transformationsstrategie, die einen sogenannten Einschmelzer (SAF – Submerged Arc Furnace) als der Direktreduktionsanlage nachgelagerten Prozess vorsieht, in dem wiederum Roheisen erschmolzen wird, das anschließend im Konverter zu Rohstahl veredelt wird.
Die Transformation der Stahlindustrie beeinflusst einen weiteren CO2-intensiven Industriesektor, nämlich die Zementindustrie die verantwortlich ist für rund 4 % der CO2-Emissionen in der EU. Etwa zwei Drittel dieser Emissionen entfallen als Prozessemissionen auf die Entsäuerung des Rohstoffs Kalkstein (CaCO3), also auf die Abspaltung von CO2 unter Entstehung des für die Herstellung von Zementklinker notwendigen Branntkalks (CaO) als Zwischenstufe bei der Bildung der hydraulischen Phasen Tri- und Dicalciumsilikat. Als eines der fünf Themenfelder (5C-Ansatz: Clinker, Cement, Concrete, Construction, Carbonation), welche die europäische Zementindustrie entlang ihrer Wertschöpfungskette zum Erreichen der gesetzlichen Vorgaben der europäischen Union erarbeitet hat, umfasst das Feld "Cement" zum größten Teil die Reduzierung des Klinker-Zement-Faktors. Im Jahr 2017 betrug er 77 %, das heißt, dass 23 % des Klinkers durch alternative Materialien ersetzt wurden. Bis zum Jahr 2030 wird ein Faktor von 74 % und bis zum Jahr 2050 von 65 % angestrebt. Den größten Anteil an den Klinkersubstituten hat mit 33 % der Hüttensand aus der Stahlindustrie. Bei der Roheisenproduktion im Hochofen entsteht als Nebenprodukt Hochofenschlacke, die unter Zugabe von Schlackebildnern die Gangart des Möllers und mineralische Koksbestandteile abbindet, sowie weitere unerwünschte Begleitelemente wie Schwefel und Alkalien aufnimmt. Allein in Deutschland wurden im Jahr 2021 6,90 Mio. t – das entspricht 90 % der gesamten produzierten Hochofenschlacke – zu glasig erstarrtem Hüttensand granuliert. Dieser Hüttensand besitzt latent hydraulische Eigenschaften und wird daher seit mehr als 140 Jahren als Zementbestandteil eingesetzt, wodurch in Deutschland jährlich rund 4,5 Mio. t CO2-Emissionen eingespart werden. Alle Transformationsstrategien der Stahlindustrie beinhalten die notwendige Außerbetriebnahme der CO2-intensiven Hochöfen. Dies hat unter anderem zur Folge, dass die Hochofenschlacke als Nebenprodukt der Rohstahlerzeugung im Hochofen nicht mehr zur Verfügung stehen wird, wodurch die weitere Reduzierung des Klinker-Zement-Faktors erhebliche Zusatzmengen alternativer Materialien benötigen wird. Derzeit ist noch unklar, ob z.B. calcinierte Tone im benötigten Umfang erzeugt werden können.
Der Fachbereich Thermochemische Reststoffbehandlung und Wertstoffrückgewinnung der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) und das Institut für Baustoffforschung FEhS forschen zusammen mit Industriepartnern und weiteren Forschungseinrichtungen im Rahmen zweier Projekte in den Kooperationssphären der Stahl- und Zementindustrie, die zur Bewältigung dieser Herausforderungen beitragen. Im Projekt SlagCEM wird die Produktion eines hydraulischen Zementbestandteils durch Reduktion von Konverter- bzw. Linz-Donawitz-Schlacke (LDS) untersucht. Die mit den zusätzlich aufgenommen Lichtbogenofenkapazitäten steigenden Mengen an Elektrolichtbogenofenschlacke (EOS, engl. electric arc furnace slag, EAFS) werden im Projekt DRI-EOS behandelt, welches die Produktion eines latent hydraulischen Hüttensandsubstituts zum Ziel hat.
Die Europäische Kommission präsentierte am 11. Dezember 2019 den European Green Deal, ein Konzept mit dem Ziel, bis zum Jahr 2050 als erster Kontinent Klimaneutralität zu erreichen. Mit Inkrafttreten der Verordnung (EU) 2021/1119 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Europäischen Rates am 29. Juli 2021 zur Schaffung des Rahmens für die Verwirklichung der Klimaneutralität („Europäisches Klimagesetz“), ist dieses, sowie das Ziel der Reduzierung der Nettotreibhausgasemissionen um mindestens 55 % bis 2030 in der Gesetzgebung der Europäischen Union verankert. Die Stahlindustrie in der Europäischen Union mit ca. 57 Mio. t Nettotreibhausgasemissionen im Jahr 2020, die annähernd 2 % der Emissionen der Europäischen Union ausmachen (Inklusive Energie: 127 Mio. t; 4 %), bekennt sich zur erheblichen Reduzierung der CO2-Emissionen bis zum Jahr 2030 und zum Erreichen der Klimaneutralität bis zum Jahr 2050. Als Schlüsselwege zur Verwirklichung dieser Zielstellung hat sie zum einen Smart Carbon Usage (SCU) und zum anderen Carbon Direct Avoidance (CDA) in einer Roadmap formuliert. SCU umfasst CO2-reduzierende Maßnahmen in bestehenden Eisen- und Stahlproduktionsprozessen, Carbon Capture and Storage- (CCS) sowie Carbon Capture and Usage-Technologien (CCU). Wohingegen bei CDA CO2-Emissionen durch erneuerbare elektrische Energie sowie wasserstoffbasierte Reduktion des Eisenerzes gar nicht erst entstehen sollen. Der CDA-Weg, der voraussichtlich beschritten werden muss, um eine klimaneutrale Stahlproduktion zu erreichen [38], geht mit einer kostenintensiven Transformation der Stahlproduktion einher, die bereits von vielen Unternehmen der Stahlindustrie eingeleitet wurde und von der im Wesentlichen die beiden in Europa vorherrschenden Stahlproduktionsrouten Hochofen-Konverter-Route und Elektrolichtbogenofen-Route betroffen sind. Die CO2-Emissionen der Hochofen-Konverter-Route, von denen der überwiegende Anteil auf den Hochofen fällt, liegen laut einer für das Jahr 2015 erstellten Studie bei 1921 kg CO2/t Rohstahl inklusive der CO2-Last der Pellets als Einsatzmaterial sowie der Emissionen der nachgelagerten Stranggießanlagen und Walzwerke. Im Hochofen wird das Eisenerz durch Kohlenstoff (C) bzw. Kohlenstoffmonoxid (CO) – welche größtenteils aus dem Koks, der dem Hochofen zusammen mit dem Möller über die Gicht zugeführten wird, stammen – unter Entstehung von Roheisen und Kohlenstoffdioxid (CO2) reduziert. Das neben dem CO2 im Prozessgas enthaltene CO wird zum Beispiel zur Energiegewinnung in peripheren Prozessen ebenfalls unter Bildung von CO2 verbrannt. Zusätzlich zur Reduktion hat der Koks unter anderem physikalische Aufgaben, wie die Errichtung eines Stützgerüstes und die Gewährleistung der Permeabilität im Hochofenprozess. Somit ist eine vollkommene Substitution des Kokses zur Vermeidung der CO2-Emissionen im Hochofen nicht denkbar. Viele Strategien der Stahlunternehmen zum Erreichen der Klimaziele verfolgen daher den Wechsel von der Rohstahlproduktion aus der Hochofen-Konverter-Route hin zur Rohstahlproduktion im Elektrolichtbogenofen (EAF – Electric Arc Furnace) mit dem Einsatz von direkt reduziertem Eisen (Eisenschwamm, DRI – Direct Reduced Iron) aus vorgelagerten Direktreduktionsanlagen, die mit Wasserstoff (H2) als Reduktionsmittel betrieben werden können. Dabei ist die Elektrostahlerzeugung kein neuer Prozess und nimmt in der europäischen Union bereits jetzt einen Anteil von ca. 44 % der Rohstahlproduktion ein, jedoch überwiegend mit Schrott als Einsatzmaterial. Bei der Elektrostahlerzeugung mit Schrotteinsatz fallen laut der oben genannten Studie von Lüngen für das Jahr 20152 410 kg CO2-Emissionen pro Tonne Rohstahl an, von denen der Großteil auf die CO2-Last der fremd bezogenen elektrischen Energie zurückzuführen ist und daher nicht im Produktionsprozess selbst entsteht. Auch die Direktreduktion wird schon seit 1972 in der weltweit zweiten und bis heute in Westeuropa einzigen Direktreduktionsanlage in Hamburg betrieben. Während hier noch mit einem Reduktionsgas gearbeitet wird, das hauptsächlich aus einem aus Erdgas gewonnenen Wasserstoff-Kohlenstoffmonoxid-Gemisch besteht, liegt eine aktuelle Kernherausforderung in der Bereitstellung des in der Größenordnung der von der Transformation betroffenen Rohstahlproduktionskapazitäten notwendigen, mit erneuerbarer elektrischer Energie hergestellten Wasserstoffs. Wird zusätzlich der Strom für das Einschmelzen im Elektrolichtbogenofen aus erneuerbaren Quellen gewonnen und werden schließlich als Brennstoff verwendete Kohle und als Brennstoff verwendetes Erdgas durch CO2-neutrale Bio-Brennstoffe ersetzt, sind sowohl für den Einsatz von mit Wasserstoff reduziertem und auf Pellets ohne CO2-Last basiertem Eisenschwamm als auch für den Einsatz von Schrott CO2-Emissionen von jeweils nur 60 kg CO2/t Rohstahl erreichbar, was eine Reduktion der Emissionen, ausgehend von der Konverter-Hochofen-Route um 97 % und ausgehend von der Schrott-Elektrolichtbogenofen-Route um 85 % bedeuten würde.
Der Betrieb von Elektrolichtbogenöfen macht die an den Standorten vorhandenen Konverter sowie die Infrastruktur für Behandlung und Transport des Roheisens überflüssig. Die fortwährende Nutzung dieser bestehenden Anlagenstruktur dient daher unter anderem als Motivation für die Entwicklung einer zweiten Transformationsstrategie, die einen sogenannten Einschmelzer (SAF – Submerged Arc Furnace) als der Direktreduktionsanlage nachgelagerten Prozess vorsieht, in dem wiederum Roheisen erschmolzen wird, das anschließend im Konverter zu Rohstahl veredelt wird.
Die Transformation der Stahlindustrie beeinflusst einen weiteren CO2-intensiven Industriesektor, nämlich die Zementindustrie die verantwortlich ist für rund 4 % der CO2-Emissionen in der EU. Etwa zwei Drittel dieser Emissionen entfallen als Prozessemissionen auf die Entsäuerung des Rohstoffs Kalkstein (CaCO3), also auf die Abspaltung von CO2 unter Entstehung des für die Herstellung von Zementklinker notwendigen Branntkalks (CaO) als Zwischenstufe bei der Bildung der hydraulischen Phasen Tri- und Dicalciumsilikat. Als eines der fünf Themenfelder (5C-Ansatz: Clinker, Cement, Concrete, Construction, Carbonation), welche die europäische Zementindustrie entlang ihrer Wertschöpfungskette zum Erreichen der gesetzlichen Vorgaben der europäischen Union erarbeitet hat, umfasst das Feld "Cement" zum größten Teil die Reduzierung des Klinker-Zement-Faktors. Im Jahr 2017 betrug er 77 %, das heißt, dass 23 % des Klinkers durch alternative Materialien ersetzt wurden. Bis zum Jahr 2030 wird ein Faktor von 74 % und bis zum Jahr 2050 von 65 % angestrebt. Den größten Anteil an den Klinkersubstituten hat mit 33 % der Hüttensand aus der Stahlindustrie. Bei der Roheisenproduktion im Hochofen entsteht als Nebenprodukt Hochofenschlacke, die unter Zugabe von Schlackebildnern die Gangart des Möllers und mineralische Koksbestandteile abbindet, sowie weitere unerwünschte Begleitelemente wie Schwefel und Alkalien aufnimmt. Allein in Deutschland wurden im Jahr 2021 6,90 Mio. t – das entspricht 90 % der gesamten produzierten Hochofenschlacke – zu glasig erstarrtem Hüttensand granuliert. Dieser Hüttensand besitzt latent hydraulische Eigenschaften und wird daher seit mehr als 140 Jahren als Zementbestandteil eingesetzt, wodurch in Deutschland jährlich rund 4,5 Mio. t CO2-Emissionen eingespart werden. Alle Transformationsstrategien der Stahlindustrie beinhalten die notwendige Außerbetriebnahme der CO2-intensiven Hochöfen. Dies hat unter anderem zur Folge, dass die Hochofenschlacke als Nebenprodukt der Rohstahlerzeugung im Hochofen nicht mehr zur Verfügung stehen wird, wodurch die weitere Reduzierung des Klinker-Zement-Faktors erhebliche Zusatzmengen alternativer Materialien benötigen wird. Derzeit ist noch unklar, ob z.B. calcinierte Tone im benötigten Umfang erzeugt werden können.
Der Fachbereich Thermochemische Reststoffbehandlung und Wertstoffrückgewinnung der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) und das Institut für Baustoffforschung FEhS forschen zusammen mit Industriepartnern und weiteren Forschungseinrichtungen im Rahmen zweier Projekte in den Kooperationssphären der Stahl- und Zementindustrie, die zur Bewältigung dieser Herausforderungen beitragen. Im Projekt SlagCEM wird die Produktion eines hydraulischen Zementbestandteils durch Reduktion von Konverter- bzw. Linz-Donawitz-Schlacke (LDS) untersucht. Die mit den zusätzlich aufgenommen Lichtbogenofenkapazitäten steigenden Mengen an Elektrolichtbogenofenschlacke (EOS, engl. electric arc furnace slag, EAFS) werden im Projekt DRI-EOS behandelt, welches die Produktion eines latent hydraulischen Hüttensandsubstituts zum Ziel hat.
The most massive design on the Baltic shore used geosynthetic materials, the landslide protection construction in Svetlogorsk (1300 m long, 90,000 m2 area, South-Eastern Baltic, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russian Federation) comprises the geotextile and the erosion control geomat coating the open-air cliff slopes. Due to changes in elastic properties during long-term use in the open air, as well as due to its huge size, this structure can become a non-negligible source of microplastic pollution in the Baltic Sea. Weather conditions affected the functioning of the structure, so it was assessed that geosynthetic materials used in this outdoor (open-air) operation in coastal protection structures degraded over time. Samples taken at points with different ambient conditions (groundwater outlet; arid places; exposure to the direct sun; grass cover; under landslide) were tested on crystallinity and strain at break. Tests showed a 39–85% loss of elasticity of the polymer filaments after 3 years of use under natural conditions. Specimens exposed to sunlight are less elastic and more prone to fail, but not as much as samples taken from shaded areas in the grass and under the landslide, which were the most brittle.
Der Vortrag widmet sich der materialwissenschaftlichen Analyse von Zeichnungen einiger Bauhausschülerinnen und Bauhausschüler und legt besonderen Fokus auf die verwendeten Farbmittel. Die Objekte werden mit nicht-invasiven bildgebenden Verfahren untersucht, in dem die Wechselwirkung zwischen Röntgen-, sichtbarem und infraroten Licht und den Zeichnungen studiert wird.
Dier Analysen liefern nicht nur generell Erkenntnisse über die Art und Zusammensetzung und damit das Alter der verwendeten Farbmittel. Durch die Auffindung von Vorzeichnungen, die Bestimmung von Überarbeitungen und Korrekturen werden Erkenntnisse über die Genese von Zeichnungen gewonnen. Auf der Basis dieser materialwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisse werden die Begriffe Original, Kopie, Fälschung diskutiert.
Da die nicht-invasiven Untersuchungen einen umfassenden Einblick in die Materialität der – überwiegend aus Papier bestehenden – Objekte erlauben, bilden sie die Grundlage für die Erstellung nachhaltiger Konservierungs- und Restaurierungskampagnen und deren dauerhaften Erhalt.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of more than 10,000 anionic, cationic, zwitterionic or neutral organofluorine surfactants. As a result of continuous and prolific use, mainly in aviation firefighting foams, thousands of industrial and military installations have been found to contain contaminated soil, groundwater and surface water. While liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is commonly used technique to characterize targeted PFAS in environmental samples, there are more than 10,000 different PFAS known, which have various headgroups and properties. Therefore, several analytical techniques are available to analyse various groups or pools of PFAS or “all” PFAS as a sum parameter. Current decontamination strategies of PFAS-burdened soils mainly consist of adsorption methods using adsorbents for fixation of PFAS in the ground. A second option is the utilization of a “pump and treat” process, cycling polluted soils through a washing plant leading to the concentration of the pollutants in the fine fraction. Both approaches are cost-intensive and not intended for the direct decomposition of all PFAS contaminants. Hence, there is a great demand for innovative developments and chemical treatment technologies, dealing with new strategies of tackling the PFAS problem. Previously, mechanochemical treatment of polychlorinated organic compounds in soils showed an efficient dechlorination. Thus, we investigated mechanochemical treatment of PFAS contaminated soils with various additives in a ball mill and analyzed the PFAS defluorination with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), respectively, as well es the fluoride mineralization by ion chromatography (IC) and fluorine K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy.
Research on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) frequently incorporates organofluorine measurements, particularly because they could support a class-based approach to regulation. However, standardized methods for organofluorine analysis in a broad suite of matrices are currently unavailable, including a method for extractable organofluorine (EOF) measured using combustion ion chromatography (CIC). Here, we report the results of an international interlaboratory comparison. Seven laboratories representing academia, government, and the private sector measured paired EOF and PFAS concentrations in groundwater and eel (Anguilla rostrata) from a site contaminated by aqueous film-forming foam. Among all laboratories, targeted PFAS could not explain all EOF in groundwater but accounted for most EOF in eel. EOF results from all laboratories for at least one replicate extract fell within one standard deviation of the interlaboratory mean for groundwater and five out of seven laboratories for eel. PFAS spike mixture recoveries for EOF measurements in groundwater and eel were close to the criterion (±30%) for standardized targeted PFAS methods. Instrumental operation of the CIC such as replicate sample injections was a major source of measurement uncertainty. Blank contamination and incomplete inorganic fluorine removal may introduce additional uncertainties. To elucidate the presence of unknown organofluorine using paired EOF and PFAS measurements, we recommend that analysts carefully consider confounding methodological uncertainties such as differences in precision between measurements, data processing steps such as blank subtraction and replicate analyses, and the relative recoveries of PFAS and other fluorine compounds.
Bei dem Vortrag werden die potentiellen mikrobiologischen Einflüsse im Falle der Lagerung von Wasserstofflagerung in unterirdischen geologischen Formationen vorgestellt, die Zusammenarbeit mit internen und auch externen Partnern. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf UGF; anaerobe Umgebungen, Sulfate reduzierenden Bakterien, methanogenen Archaea, weiterleitenden Systeme und die Kombination der Untersuchung abiotisch/biotische
Woodworms, carpet beetles, clothes moths and termites are well known pests on artifacts of cultural importance. Lately also silverfish have gained importance. Protection of our cultural heritage for future generations is not a new task but the methods have changed. Conventional use of pesticides in the past has preserved precious objects up to the presence, which otherwise probably would have been lost over time due to the destruction by insects and microbes. However, several of the objects were contaminated with poisons in such a manner that they became unsafe to be handled and thus are useless for exhibitions or scientific studies.
Today, the concept of Integrated Museum Pest Management (IMPM) provides guidance for non-residue treatments of infested objects, followed by save storage or display under pest free (or maximum pest reduced) environments. Inert fumigants, physical and biological control measure, precise monitoring, threshold evaluations and detailed knowledge of the pest`s biology are key elements within IMPM.
Woodworms, clothes moths and termites, however, are not always considered as only pests. Some professionals have also used them to produce new pieces of art or for the installation of ephemeral displays. Under more or less controlled conditions, the insects´ destructive nature on wood or textiles has been turned around to a process of creation with aesthetic or philosophical messages.
Destructive or creative - it just depends on the point of view!
Aschen und Schlacken aus der thermischen Abfallbehandlung enthalten eine Vielzahl von Schwermetallverbindungen. Für Antimon, Chrom, Kupfer, Molybdän und Vanadium werden in der neuen Ersatzbaustoffverordnung (Bundesregierung, 2021) Eluatgrenzwerte für die Verwertung festgelegt. Aschen und Schlacken werden aus der Abfallverbrennungsanlage nass ausgetragen und vor einer Verwertung in der Regel mehrere Wochen gelagert. Dabei finden hydraulische Reaktionen statt und enthaltenes CaO wird zu einem Großteil in Calciumcarbonat umgewandelt. Während wässrige Eluate von frischen Aschen pH-Werte von 12 und höher aufweisen, sind die Eluate nach einigen Wochen weniger stark alkalisch. Die gemessenen Schwermetallkonzentrationen sind daher dann auch deutlich niedriger, mit Ausnahme von Antimon (Sb) und Vanadium (V). Hier steigen die Konzentration mit der Lagerungsdauer. Grund sind sinkende Konzentrationen von Ca-Ionen, die sonst zu einer Ausfällung von Antimonaten und Vanadaten führen. Zu hohe Eluatwerte von Sb und V können jedoch durch Sorption an Eisenoxidverbindungen gemindert werden. Dazu wurden Sorptionsexperimente mit verschiedenen Eisenoxidverbindungen durchgeführt.