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Paper des Monats
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Antimicrobial surfaces have broad use in multiple settings including touch surfaces in hospitals, implanted devices, or consumer products. Their aim is to support existing hygiene procedures, and to help combat the increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance. However, concerns have been raised over the potential selection pressure exerted by such surfaces, which might drive the evolution and spread of antimicrobial resistance. In my presentation, I will highlight the risks and knowledge gaps associated with resistance on antimicrobial surfaces by different processes including evolution by de novo mutations and horizontal gene transfer, and species sorting of inherently resistant bacteria dispersed onto antimicrobial surfaces. The latter process has the potential to select for antibiotic resistance via cross-resistance between traits that confer resistance to both the antimicrobial surface coating and antibiotics. Conditions in which antibiotics and antimicrobial coatings are present simultaneously (e.g. implants) will lead to more complex interactions that can either result in the selection for or against antibiotic resistance. We mapped these interactions between several antimicrobials and antibiotics on growth and selection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We find prevalent physiological (i.e. synergy and antagonism) and evolutionary (i.e. cross-resistance and collateral sensitivity) combination effects. Understanding these interactions opens the door to tailor therapeutic interventions to select against resistance. In additions, we need new methods and translational studies that investigate resistance development to antimicrobial surfaces under realistic conditions. Therefore, I will present recent developments in our lab on the development of such a method based on existing efficacy standards.
Selection of resistance in bacteria grown on antimicrobial surfaces in a multidrug environment
(2018)
Bacterial biofilms are regarded as the most common cause of chronic infections and are often associated with medical devices, such as implants and catheters. Bacteria growing in biofilms produce a protective, extracellular matrix, which enables them to tolerate much higher antimicrobial concentrations than free-living bacteria and survive long enough to acquire antimicrobial resistance. Preventive and therapeutic strategies against biofilm infections in clinical settings commonly involve the application of multiple antimicrobials: antimicrobial coatings on the biomaterials and systemically administered antibiotics. This frequent practice harbors the risk of the development of cross-resistance via shared resistance mechanisms between antimicrobials used in material coatings and administered antibiotics.
Our goal is to determine how population dynamics within biofilms affect the transmission of resistance mutations. Specifically, we want to identify antimicrobial-antibiotic-combinations that select for and against antibiotic resistance in biofilms by following the population dynamics of resistant and susceptible strains in competition assays. Gaining a better understanding about resistance development and spread in persistent biofilm infections will enable us to provide clinical recommendations for improved administration of antibiotics/antimicrobials in combination with medical device materials to mitigate against biofilm associated antimicrobial resistance.
Here, we will discuss our first findings on the effects of combinations of the carbapenem drug meropenem and various antimicrobials.
Introduction: Biofilms are regarded as a common cause of chronic infections on medical devices. Preventive and therapeutic strategies against biofilm infections commonly involve applications of multiple antimicrobial substances: antimicrobial coatings on the implanted biomaterials in combination with systemically administered antibiotics. While this practice of combination therapy harbours the risk of developing cross-resistance, it might also provide the possibility to implement specific antimicrobial-antibiotic combinations (AACs) that can slow down the selection of antibiotic resistant strains.
Hypothesis and aims: Specific AACs can exert combinatorial effects on the growth of susceptible and antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa that either suppress or increase their individual effects.
Our aim is to identify AACs with antagonistic or synergistic effects on pseudomonal biofilms and to understand their impact on selection of resistant strains. Specifically, we want to identify AACs that select for and against antibiotic resistance during biofilm formation.
Methodology: We screened for AACs that cause antagonistic or synergistic effects on planktonic P. aeruginosa.
To study the effect of antimicrobial-antibiotic exposure on resistance selection in bacterial biofilms, we will grow resistant and sensitive strains on PDMS surfaces with and without antimicrobial coatings and expose them to antibiotics.
Results: Several combinations with synergistic or antagonistic interaction on the growth rate of P. aeruginosa were detected. We observed a strong antagonism when combining the antimicrobial substance chlorhexidine with the carbapenem drug meropenem. A meropenem-resistant mutant showed a selection advantage in low concentrations of chlorhexidine combined with a sub-inhibitory concentration of meropenem over the wild-type. No antagonistic effect was observed for the same combination when E. coli was exposed to chlorhexidine and meropenem, suggesting a non-chemical basis for the observed effect on P. aeruginosa.
Conclusion: Gaining a better understanding about resistance selection during biofilm formation on biomedical surfaces will enable us to mitigate against biofilm-associated antimicrobial resistance.
Background Bacterial biofilms are regarded as the most common cause of chronic infections and are often associated with medical devices, such as implants and catheters. Bacteria growing in biofilms produce a protective, extracellular matrix, which enables them to tolerate much higher antimicrobial concentrations than free-living bacteria and survive long enough to acquire antimicrobial resistance. Preventive and therapeutic strategies against biofilm infections in clinical settings commonly involve the application of multiple antimicrobials: biocidal coatings on the biomaterials and systemically administered antibiotics. This frequent practice harbors the risk of the development of cross-resistance via shared resistance mechanisms between antimicrobials used in material coatings and administered antibiotics.
Aim Our goal is to determine how bacteria adapt to antimicrobials during biofilm formation on surfaces coated with antimicrobials, how antimicrobial resistance mutations are acquired and evolve within mature biofilms, and how population dynamics within biofilms affect the transmission of resistance mutations. Specifically, we want to identify antimicrobial-antibiotic-combinations that select for and against antibiotic resistance in biofilms by following the population dynamics of resistant and susceptible strains in competition assays.
Methodology We will grow biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on glass surfaces with and without antimicrobial coatings and expose them to antibiotics. Then we will track their physiological properties, evolutionary adaptations, and population dynamics. First, we will screen in vitro for combinations of antibiotics and antimicrobials that select for and against antibiotic resistance. Second, effective combinations will be chosen for in-depth investigations during bacterial adhesion and of mature biofilms of resistant and susceptible genotypes. Third, based on the outcome of the screen and the obtained mechanistic understanding we will choose a clinical example in which we study the relevance of our findings in biofilms grown in vivo.
Relevance Studying the biointerfacial interactions between bacterial biofilms and medical devices in terms of population dynamics as well as on single cell level during multidrug selection will help us understand how drug resistance develops and spreads in persistent biofilm infections. Based on our findings we aim to provide clinical recommendations for improved administration of antibiotics/antimicrobials in combination with medical device materials in order to mitigate against biofilm associated antimicrobial resistance.
Background Bacterial biofilms are regarded as the most common cause of chronic infections and are often associated with medical devices, such as implants and catheters. Bacteria growing in biofilms produce a protective, extracellular matrix, which enables them to tolerate much higher antimicrobial concentrations than free-living bacteria and survive long enough to acquire antimicrobial resistance. Preventive and therapeutic strategies against biofilm infections in clinical settings commonly involve the application of multiple antimicrobials: biocidal coatings on the biomaterials and systemically administered antibiotics. This frequent practice harbors the risk of the development of cross-resistance via shared resistance mechanisms between antimicrobials used in material coatings and administered antibiotics.
Aim Our goal is to determine how bacteria adapt to antimicrobials during biofilm formation on surfaces coated with antimicrobials and how population dynamics within biofilms affect the transmission of resistance mutations. Specifically, we want to identify antimicrobial-antibiotic-combinations that select for and against antibiotic resistance in biofilms by following the population dynamics of resistant and susceptible strains in competition assays on a single cell level.
Methodology To study the effect of antimicrobial-antibiotic exposure on resistance development and population dynamics on bacterial biofilms in a multidrug environment, we will grow Pseudomonas aeruginosa on glass surfaces with and without antimicrobial coatings and expose them to antibiotics. First, we will screen in vitro for combinations of antibiotics and antimicrobials that select for and against antibiotic resistance. Second, effective combinations will be chosen for in-depth investigations during bacterial adhesion and of mature biofilms of resistant and susceptible genotypes. Third, based on the outcome of the screen and the obtained mechanistic understanding we will choose a clinical example in which we study the relevance of our findings in biofilms grown in vivo.
Relevance Studying the biointerfacial interactions between bacterial biofilms and medical devices in terms of population dynamics as well as on single cell level during multidrug selection will help us understand how drug resistance develops and spreads in persistent biofilm infections. Based on our findings we aim to provide clinical recommendations for improved administration of antibiotics/antimicrobials in combination with medical device materials in order to mitigate against biofilm associated antimicrobial resistance.
Re-melting of scrap in an electric arc furnace (EAF) results in the accumulation of filter dust from off-gas treatment that predominantly consists of iron and zinc oxides. Filter dust is classified as hazardous waste due to its high contents of potentially toxic or ecotoxic elements such as Pb, Cr, Cd, and As. A promising processing route for this waste is selective chlorination, in which the non-ferrous metal oxides are chlorinated and selectively evaporated in form of their respective chlorides from the remaining solids via the process gas flow. Here, we investigate stepwise thermochemical treatment of EAF dust with either waste iron(II) chloride solution or hydrochloric acid at 650, 800, and 1100 ◦C. The Zn and Pb contents of the thermochemically processed EAF dust could be lowered from 29.9% and 1.63% to 0.09% and 0.004%, respectively. Stepwise heating allowed high separation between zinc chloride at the 650 ◦C step and sodium-, potassium-, and lead-containing chlorides at higher temperatures. Furthermore, the lab-scale results were transferred to the use of an experimental rotary kiln highlighting the possibilities of upscaling the presented process. Selective chlorination of EAF dust with liquid chlorine donors is, therefore, suggested as a potential recycling method for Zn-enriched steelworks dusts.
The classification of incineration bottom ash (IBA) as hazardous or non-hazardous according to ecotoxic hazard property HP14 is still under debate. In this context, only the compounds of Zn and Cu with the hazard statement code H410 are of relevance. With an approach based on the grouping of substances, it was shown that such substances are either readily water-soluble or slightly and sparingly soluble. The concentrations of readily soluble Cu and Zn compounds in IBA are far below the cut-off value of 0.1%. Slightly and sparingly soluble Zn and Cu compounds could be quantified in the first fraction of a four-step sequential extraction procedure. With the results from the complete sequence, the dimensionless synthesis toxicity index (STI) was calculated and was in the range of 494 to 1218 for the four investigated IBA samples. It was concluded that IBA can usually be classified as non-hazardous.
The classification of incineration bottom ash (IBA) as hazardous or non-hazardous according to ecotoxic hazard property HP14 is still under debate. In this context, only the compounds of Zn and Cu with the hazard statement code H410 are of relevance. With an approach based on the grouping of substances, it was shown that such substances are either readily water-soluble or slightly and sparingly soluble. The concentrations of readily soluble Cu and Zn compounds in IBA are far below the cut-off value of 0.1%. Slightly and sparingly soluble Zn and Cu compounds could be quantified in the first fraction of a four-step sequential extraction procedure. With the results from the complete sequence, the dimensionless synthesis toxicity index (STI) was calculated and was in the range of 494 to 1218 for the four investigated IBA samples. It was concluded that IBA can usually be classified as non-hazardous.
The polyphyletic group of black fungi within the Ascomycota (Arthoniomycetes, Dothideomycetes, and Eurotiomycetes) is ubiquitous in natural and anthropogenic habitats. Partly because of their dark, melanin-based pigmentation, black fungi are resistant to stresses including UV- and ionizing-radiation, heat and desiccation, toxic metals, and organic pollutants. Consequently, they are amongst the most stunning extremophiles and poly-extreme-tolerant organisms on Earth. Even though ca. 60 black fungal genomes have been sequenced to date, [mostly in the family Herpotrichiellaceae (Eurotiomycetes)], the class Dothideomycetes that hosts the largest majority of extremophiles has only been sparsely sampled. By sequencing up to 92 species that will become reference genomes, the “Shed light in The daRk lineagES of the fungal tree of life” (STRES) project will cover a broad collection of black fungal diversity spread throughout the Fungal Tree of Life. Interestingly, the STRES project will focus on mostly unsampled genera that display different ecologies and life-styles (e.g., ant- and lichen-associated fungi, rock-inhabiting fungi, etc.). With a resequencing strategy of 10- to 15-fold depth coverage of up to ~550 strains, numerous new reference genomes will be established. To identify metabolites and functional processes, these new genomic resources will be enriched with metabolomics analyses coupled with transcriptomics experiments on selected species under various stress conditions (salinity, dryness, UV radiation, oligotrophy). The data acquired will serve as a reference and foundation for establishing an encyclopedic database for fungal metagenomics as well as the biology, evolution, and ecology of the fungi in extreme environments.
In many late-breaking research fields as in photovoltaics, microelectronics, nuclear waste glasses or at least mirror glasses silver diffusion in glasses is relevant to the issues of high-level functionality and recycling. The present study is focused on silver diffusion in innovative, low-melting alkali zinc borate glasses (X2O-ZnO-B2O3, X = Li, Na, K, Rb) potentially usable for silver metallization-pastes in solar cells. The glasses were coated with a thin metallic silver layer and heat treatments in air and nitrogen close to Tg at 470 °C for 2 h were performed. After heat treatment under air and nitrogen atmospheres the coating thickness, measured by a white light interferometer, was about 1.8 µm thick. Silver depth profiles determined by means of secondary neutral mass spectrometry (SNMS) indicate the fastest silver diffusion to a depth of 3.5 µm for Li2O-ZnO-B2O3 (LZB) glass. Nevertheless, the influence of the different alkali ions on the silver diffusion is small. The oxygen availability determines the silver diffusion into the glasses. The oxygen promotes the oxidation of the silver layer enabling Ag+ to diffuse into the glass and to precipitate as Ag0. Both species were detected by x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The precipitated metallic silver particles in Na2O-ZnO-B2O3 (NZB) glass have a mean size of 5.9 nm ± 1.2 nm diameter, which was determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Phase separation in zinc-rich and zinc-poor phases with a mean diameter of 75 nm ± 20 nm occurred in NZB glass after heat treatment. Ion diffusion of the glasses into the silver layer was suggested by EDX-line scans.
A fundamental question in ecology is how biodiversity affects ecosystem function. Biodiversity is commonly estimated based on genetic variation. We investigated a new approach that defines and measures biodiversity in complex microbial communities. We used the variation in multiple functionally-relevant, phenotypic traits measured in parallel in single cells as a metric for microbial phenotypic diversity. We studied phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning throughout different photosynthetic layers dominated by divergent microbial communities in the gradient of Lago di Cadagno. We determined genetic diversity by 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing and bulk ecosystem functioning (photosynthesis). In addition, we determined phenotypic diversity using single-cell technologies such as nanometer-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) correlated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning flow-cytometry. We measured functional trait variation between individuals in 13CO2 fixation, 15NH4+ uptake, and variation in physio-morphological cell traits, such as cell size, shape, and auto-fluorescence for various pigments related to photosynthesis. We used the distances between individuals in a multidimensional trait space to derive phenotypic trait-based diversity indices, such as trait richness, trait evenness, and trait divergence. We find that phenotypic trait divergence associates with ecosystem functioning, whereas genetic diversity does not. Including activity-based, single-cell phenotypic measurements with NanoSIMS provided an additional accuracy to the trait-based diversity assessment and allowed us to formulate hypotheses on the mechanisms that shape the correlation between phenotypic diversity and eco-system function. Together, our results show that phenotypic diversity is a meaningful concept to measure microbial biodiversity and associate it with ecosystem functioning.
A fundamental question in ecology is how biodiversity affects ecosystem function. Biodiversity is commonly estimated based on genetic variation. We investigated a new approach that defines and measures biodiversity in complex microbial communities. We used the variation in multiple functionally-relevant, phenotypic traits measured in parallel in single cells as a metric for microbial phenotypic diversity. We studied phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning throughout different photosynthetic layers dominated by divergent microbial communities in the gradient of Lago di Cadagno. We determined genetic diversity by 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing and bulk ecosystem functioning (photosynthesis). In addition, we determined phenotypic diversity using single-cell technologies such as nanometer-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) correlated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning flow-cytometry. We measured functional trait variation between individuals in 13CO2 fixation, 15NH4+ uptake, and variation in physio-morphological cell traits, such as cell size, shape, and auto-fluorescence for various pigments related to photosynthesis. We used the distances between individuals in a multidimensional trait space to derive phenotypic trait-based diversity indices, such as trait richness, trait evenness, and trait divergence. We find that phenotypic trait divergence associates with ecosystem functioning, whereas genetic diversity does not. Including activity-based, single-cell phenotypic measurements with NanoSIMS provided an additional accuracy to the trait-based diversity assessment and allowed us to formulate hypotheses on the mechanisms that shape the correlation between phenotypic diversity and eco-system function. Together, our results show that phenotypic diversity is a meaningful concept to measure microbial biodiversity and associate it with ecosystem functioning.
A fundamental question in ecology is how biodiversity affects ecosystem function. Biodiversity is commonly estimated based on genetic variation. We investigated a new approach that defines and measures biodiversity in complex microbial communities. We used the variation in multiple functionally-relevant, phenotypic traits measured in parallel in single cells as a metric for microbial phenotypic diversity. We studied phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning throughout different photosynthetic layers dominated by divergent microbial communities in the gradient of Lago di Cadagno. We determined genetic diversity by 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing and bulk ecosystem functioning (photosynthesis). In addition, we determined phenotypic diversity using single-cell technologies such as nanometer-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) correlated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning flow-cytometry. We measured functional trait variation between individuals in 13CO2 fixation, 15NH4+ uptake, and variation in physio-morphological cell traits, such as cell size, shape, and auto-fluorescence for various pigments related to photosynthesis. We used the distances between individuals in a multidimensional trait space to derive phenotypic trait-based diversity indices, such as trait richness, trait evenness, and trait divergence. We find that phenotypic trait divergence associates with ecosystem functioning, whereas genetic diversity does not. Including activity-based, single-cell phenotypic measurements with NanoSIMS provided an additional accuracy to the trait-based diversity assessment and allowed us to formulate hypotheses on the mechanisms that shape the correlation between phenotypic diversity and eco-system function. Together, our results show that phenotypic diversity is a meaningful concept to measure microbial biodiversity and associate it with ecosystem functioning.
Sintered bioactive glass scaffolds of defined shape and porosity, e.g. made via additive manufacturing, must provide sufficient bioactivity and sinterability. As higher bioactivity is often linked to high corrosion and crystallization tendency, a certain compromise between sintering ability and bioactivity is therefore required. Groh et al. developed a fluoride-containing bioactive glass (F3), which allows fiber drawing and shows a bioactivity well comparable to that of Bioglass®45S5.
To study whether and to what extent the sinterability of F3 glass powder is controlled by particle size, coarse and fine F3 glass powders (300-310µm and 0-32µm) were prepared by crushing, sieving and milling. Sintering, degassing and phase transformation during heating were studied with heating microscopy, vacuum hot extraction (VHE), DTA, XRD, and SEM.
For the coarse glass powder, sintering proceeds slowly and is limited by surface crystallization of primary Na2CaSi2O6 crystals. Although the crystallization onset of Na2CaSi2O6 is shifted to lower temperature, full densification is attained for the fine powder. This finding indicate that certain porosity might be tuned via particle size variation. Above 900°C, intensive foaming is evident for the fine powder. VHE studies revealed that carbon species are the main foaming source.
Our earlier study based on historical and scientific analysis showed that Iranians used a considerable range of materials in the sizing process. Unlike many nations who used limited sizing materials to improve the mechanical strength and to smoothen the paper surface, Iranians have used various materials for sizing process from Taimurid (15th century) to Safawid (16th century) and Qajar (19th century) periods. Further to our earlier study on the Sizing Materials used in Persian manuscripts and miniature paintings, scientific analysis was carried out to investigate their behaviour against the mould fungus Aspergillus flavus. In the first stage fourteen different sizing materials that was identified from Persian historical recipes were reconstructed. In the second stage fungicidal property of each sizing samples against Aspergillus flavus fungus were identified that will be presented in this paper.
Here, we show that calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) can be directly, rapidly and reversibly converted to calcium sulfate hemihydrate (bassanite) in high salinity solutions (brines). The optimum conditions for the efficient production of bassanite in a short time (<5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the better-known behaviour of the bassanite phase in low-salt environments. In low-salinity aqueous solutions, bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion does not occur in pure water. Interestingly, the high-salinity transformation of gypsum-to-bassanite has been reported by many authors and used in practice for several decades, although its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures was inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline phase for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4ᐧ0.5H2O), also known as bassanite, has been used as a precursor to produce gypsum (dihydrate, CaSO4ᐧ2H2O) for various construction and decorative purposes since prehistoric times. The main route to obtain hemihydrate is a thermal treatment of gypsum at temperatures typically between 150 °C and 200 °C to remove some of the structural water.
In this contribution, we introduce (Fig. 1) a more efficient and sustainable method (T < 100 °C) that enables the direct, rapid, and reversibly conversion of gypsum to bassanite using reusable high salinity aqueous solutions (brines with c[NaCl] > 4 M). The optimum conditions for the efficientproduction of bassanite in a short time (< 5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the typical behaviour of the bassanite phase in low salt environments.
Traditionally, hemihydrate is obtained through a solid state thermal treatment because bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite in aqueous solutions, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion should not occur in water. Its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures is inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline structure for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.
The Brazilian sugarcane industry produced around 173 million tons (Mt) of bagasse in 2018. Bagasse is a by-product of juice extraction for ethanol and sugar production and is combusted in order to generate power, producing up to 10 Mt of ash per year. This ash contains various concentrations of plant nutrients, which allow the ash to be used as a crop fertilizer. However, the concentration and extractability of phosphorus (P), an essential plant nutrient, are low in bagasse ash. To increase the P content, we co-gasified and co-combusted bagasse with P-rich chicken manure. The resulting ash was thermochemically post-treated with alkali additives (Na2SO4 and K2SO4) to increase the availability of P to plants. We aimed to: (i) investigate the effect of thermochemical post-treatment of co-gasification residue and co-combustion ash on P availability to soybeans, (ii) explore the potential of chemical extraction methods (citric acid, neutral ammonium citrate, formic acid, and Mehlich-I) and diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) to predict the availability of P to soybeans, and (iii) identify the responsible P-phases using X-ray diffraction . We evaluated P availability to soybeans growing in Brazilian Oxisol soil in two independent greenhouse pot experiments. The positive effect of thermochemical treatment on P availability from gasification residue was confirmed through the observation of increased P uptake and biomass in soybean plants. These findings were confirmed by chemical extraction methods and DGT. The gasification residue contained whitlockite as its main P-bearing phase. Thermochemical post-treatment converted whitlockite into highly soluble CaNaPO4. In contrast, co-combustion ash already contained highly soluble Ca(Na,K)PO4 as its main P-bearing phase, making thermochemical post-treatment unnecessary for increasing P availability. In conclusion, increased extractability and availability of P for soybeans were closely connected to the formation of calcium alkali phosphate. Our findings indicate that this combined methodology allows for the prediction of P-fertilization effects of ash.
Spatial Period of Laser-Induced Surface Nanoripples on PET Determines Escherichia coli Repellence
(2021)
Bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation on surfaces are associated with persistent microbial contamination, biofouling, and the emergence of resistance, thus, calling for new strategies to impede bacterial surface colonization. Using ns-UV laser treatment (wavelength 248 nm and a pulse duration of 20 ns), laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) featuring different submicrometric periods ranging from ~210 to ~610 nm were processed on commercial poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) foils. Bacterial adhesion tests revealed that these nanorippled surfaces exhibit a repellence for E. coli that decisively depends on the spatial periods of the LIPSS with the strongest reduction (~91%) in cell adhesion observed for LIPSS periods of 214 nm. Although chemical and structural analyses indicated a moderate laser-induced surface oxidation, a significant influence on the bacterial adhesion was ruled out. Scanning electron microscopy and additional biofilm studies
using a pili-deficient E. coli TG1 strain revealed the role of extracellular appendages in the bacterial repellence observed here.
Throughout their life cycle—from production, via usage, through to disposal—materials and products interact with the environment (water, soil, air). At the same time, they are exposed to environmental influences and, through their emissions, have an impact on the environment, people, and health. Accelerated experimental testing processes can be used to predict the long-term environmental consequences of innovative products before these actually enter the environment.
The aim of this Special Issue of the journal Materials is to publish original research and review articles as well as short communications tackling the problem of reliable environmental measurement methods and reporting exemplary case studies.
The use of ashes from municipal solid waste incineration as secondary building materials is an important pillar for the circular economy in Germany. However, leaching of potential toxic elements from these materials must be at environmentally acceptable levels. Normally, a three-month ageing period immobilizes most hazardous heavy metals, but antimony (Sb) and vanadium (V) showed previously unusual leaching. In order to clarify the mechanisms, we analyzed the Sb and V species in various bottom and fly ashes from municipal waste incineration by XANES spectroscopy. Antimony oxidizes from Sb(+ III) species used as flame retardants in plastics to Sb(+ V) compounds during waste incineration. However, owing to the similarity of different Sb(+ V) compound in the Sb K- and L-edge XANES spectra, it was not possible to accurately identify an exact Sb(+ V) species. Moreover, V is mainly present as oxidation state + V compound in the analyzed ashes. However, the coarse and magnetic fraction of the bottom ashes contain larger amounts of V(+ III) and V(+ IV) compounds which might enter the waste incineration from vanadium carbide containing steel tools. Thus, Sb and V could be critical potential toxic elements in secondary building materials and long-term monitoring of the release should be taken into account in the future.
Previous research shows that analytical methods based on Diffusive Gradients in Thin films (DGT) provide very good correlations to the amount of bioavailable nutrients and pollutants in the environmental samples. However, these DGT results do not identify which compound of the specific element has the high bioavailability. Using various spectroscopic techniques (infrared, XANES and NMR spectroscopy) to analyze the dried DGT binding layers after deployment could allow us to determine the specific elements or compounds. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen are often, together with other elements, present as molecules in the environment. These ions are detectable and distinguishable by infrared and NMR spectroscopy, respectively. In addition, XANES spectroscopy allows for the specification of nutrients and pollutants (e.g. chromium) on the DGT binding layer. Furthermore, microspectroscopic techniques make it also possible to analyze compounds on the DGT binding layer with a lateral resolution down to 5 µm2. Therefore, species of elements and compounds of e.g. a spatial soil segment can be mapped and analyzed, providing valuable insight to understand the dynamics of nutrients and pollutants in the environment. Here we will present the advantages and limitations of this novel combination of techniques.
Scientific analysis based on spectroscopic methods provide essential information on the composition of colourants and binders in paintings. These results can be set in a historical context and help to confirm art historical interpretations. Proofs of certain pigments can be used for dating purposes and may reveal if the artist used not only local but also imported materials. A pilot study of two Chinese reverse glass paintings from the late 19th (Yingying and Hongniang) and early 20th centuries (The Archer) was performed using a multi-analytical approach including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) and Raman spectroscopy. This approach allowed the identification of the pigments and the classification of the binding media. The results reveal a combined use of traditional Chinese and imported European materials. Several pigments like cinnabar, lead white, orpiment, carbon black and copper-arsenic green (probably emerald green) were found in both paintings; red lead, artificial ultramarine blue, Prussian blue and ochre appear in at least one of the paintings. The proof of limewash (calcite and small amounts of portlandite) as a backing layer in “Yingying and Hongniang” indicates that clamshell white was also used for reverse glass paintings. Drying oil was classified as a binding media in most areas of both paintings. However, the orange background of The Archer yielded prominent bands of both proteinaceous and fatty binder.
The intention of the presentation is to inspire a discussion on the needs and challenges for the digitalisation of SOPs. SOPs are available for the disciplines of physical-chemical characterisation, for toxicology, for environmental applications and for exposure applications. Furthermore the SOPs need to be integrated in the regulatory framework and need to be detailed enough for the digital processing. This is highlighted in this presentation.
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is a highly unpredictable process involving a complex group of microorganisms, including sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogens. Standard laboratory MIC testing using static serum bottle enrichments is an easy but limited method, offering poor resolution on the biomineralization process of corrosion products. An example of this is the presumed corrosion product siderite by corrosive methanogens (Mi-MIC). Previous publications reported siderite was the sole corrosion product of M. maripaludis using metal coupons incubated under stationary conditions.
However, the formation of siderite is closely related to the surrounding environmental conditions, i.e. pH, CO2 concentration, flow and temperature. Thus, siderite as the sole corrosion product of Mi-MIC remain inconclusive and questionable. To study Mi-MIC effectively, a novel versatile multiport flow-column corrosion monitoring system (MFC) was developed. MFC allows sectional corrosion rate determination under flow conditions using different types of material, inoculum and packing material. MFC offers great flexibility, ease of operation and accurate corrosion measurements that can be combined with many other techniques. Using MFC, we studied multiple strains of methanogens and compared it with sulfate-reducing bacteria under neutral and low pH conditions. It was revealed by MFC that corrosive methanogens have equally high corrosion potential as sulfate-reducing bacteria. Additionally, siderite is not the dominant nor sole corrosion product of Mi-MIC. Thus, effective corrosion monitoring and establishing standard laboratory practices, i.e. incorporating MFC as part of regular testing process, will provide deeper understanding of MIC. This will allow further microbial electrophysiology understandings, contributing to effective mitigation strategy development.
In this work, we characterise the performance of a Sharp optical aerosol sensor model GP2Y1010AU0F. The sensor was exposed to different environments: to a clean room, to a controlled atmosphere with known aerosol size distribution and to the ambient atmosphere on a busy city street. During the exposure, the output waveforms of the sensor pulses were digitised, saved and a following offline analysis enabled us to study the behaviour of the sensor pulse-by-pulse. A linear response of the sensor on number concentration of the monosized dispersed PSL particles was shown together with an almost linear dependence on particle diameters in the 0.4 to 4 micrometer range.
The gathered data about the sensor were used to predict its response to an ambient atmosphere, which was observed simultaneously with a calibrated optical particle counter.
Populations of genetically identical cells can display marked variation in phenotypic traits; such variation is termed phenotypic heterogeneity. Here, we investigate the effect of substrate and electron donor limitation on phenotypic heterogeneity in N2 and CO2 fixation in the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium phaeobacteroides. We grew populations in chemostats and batch cultures and used stable isotope labelling combined with nanometer‐scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) to quantify phenotypic heterogeneity. Experiments in H2S (i.e. electron donor) limited chemostats show that varying levels of NH4+ limitation induce heterogeneity in N2 fixation. Comparison of phenotypic heterogeneity between chemostats and batch (unlimited for H2S) populations indicates that electron donor limitation drives heterogeneity in N2 and CO2 fixation. Our results demonstrate that phenotypic heterogeneity in a certain metabolic activity can be driven by different modes of limitation and that heterogeneity can emerge in different metabolic processes upon the same mode of limitation. In conclusion, our data suggest that limitation is a general driver of phenotypic heterogeneity in microbial populations.
Sugarcane bagasse is commonly combusted to generate energy. Unfortunately, recycling strategies rarely consider the resulting ash as a potential fertilizer. To evaluate this recycling strategy for a sustainable circular economy, we characterized bagasse ash as a fertilizer and measured the effects of co-gasification and co-combustion of bagasse with either chicken manure or sewage sludge: on the phosphorus (P) mass fraction, P-extractability, and mineral P phases. Furthermore, we investigated the ashes as fertilizer for soybeans under greenhouse conditions. All methods in combination are reliable indicators helping to assess and predict P availability from ashes to soybeans. The fertilizer efficiency of pure bagasse ash increased with the ash amount supplied to the substrate. Nevertheless, it was not as effective as fertilization with triple-superphosphate and K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, which we attributed to lower P availability. Co-gasification and co-combustion increased the P mass fraction in all bagasse-based ashes, but its extractability and availability to soybeans increased only when co-processed with chicken manure, because it enabled the formation of readily available Ca-alkali phosphates. Therefore, we recommend co-combusting biomass with alkali-rich residues to increase the availability of P from the ash to plants.
The suitability of common analytical methods for the determination of active substances from wood preservatives in aged wood samples was investigated during an interlaboratory study. Permethrin, propiconazole and tebuconazole were quantified in 1.5 and 8 year-old wood samples by gas chromatography and liquid chromatography. Generally, the applied Methods yielded reliable results for these samples. However, wood components can coelute with propiconazole and tebuconazole during liquid chromatography. Optimization of separation might be required if UV detection is applied.
The XPS information depth of approximately 10 nm is in the same size range as the outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria, which makes XPS a suitable tool for determining the elemental composition of the bacterial surface and monitor changes caused by outer stress like dehydration or exposure to antimicrobials. However, bacteria are inherently in a hydrated state, and therefore only compatible to ultra-high vacuum after extensive sample preparation, which may degrade the sample constituents. This issue is addressed by the development of near-ambient pressure (NAP)-XPS, which enables bacteria and biofilms to be characterised in their native wet state. Artificial biofilms, bacteria and biofilms of Escherichia coli have been characterised with the laboratory NAP-XPS instrument EnviroESCA from SPECS GmbH, at pressures ranging from high vacuum to 12 mbar, and in both humid and dry environment. By studying biological samples in their native wet state, new insight about composition and transport of drugs through cell membranes and the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) of biofilms can be obtained. In this contribution, the latest progress on biofilm characterisation by NAP-XPS will be presented, and measurement capabilities and limitations will be discussed.
Surface characterisation of biofilms by nearambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(2018)
The XPS information depth of approximately 10 nm is in the same size range as the outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria, which makes XPS a suitable tool for determining the elemental composition of the bacterial surface and monitor changes caused by outer stress like dehydration or exposure to antimicrobials. However, bacteria are inherently in a hydrated state, and therefore only compatible to ultra-high vacuum after extensive sample preparation, which may degrade the sample constituents. This issue is addressed by the development of near-ambient pressure (NAP)-XPS, which enables bacteria and biofilms to be characterised in their native wet state. Artificial biofilms, bacteria and biofilms of Escherichia coli have been characterised with the laboratory NAP-XPS instrument EnviroESCA from SPECS GmbH, at pressures ranging from high vacuum to 12 mbar, and in both humid and dry environment. By studying biological samples in their native wet state, new insight about composition and transport of drugs through cell membranes and the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) of biofilms can be obtained.
A presentation held for the seminar "Ausgewählte analytische Methoden der Physik" hosted by Prof. Birgit Kanngießer at TU Berlin. The first part focus on depth-dependent XPS-measurements (XPS, synchrotron HAXPES) to obtain a concentration profile of iodine in an artificial biofilm. In the second part, NAP-XPS measurements of various bacterial samples are presented.
Surface characterisation of Escherichia coli under various conditions by near-ambient pressure XPS
(2018)
Bacteria are inherently in a hydrated state and therefore not compatible to ultra-high vacuum techniques such as XPS without prior sample preparation involving freeze drying or fast freezing.
This has changed with the development of near-ambient pressure (NAP)-XPS, which makes it possible to characterise the bacterial surface with minimal sample preparation. This paper presents NAP-XPS measurements of Escherichia coli under various NAP conditions: at 11 mbar in a humid environment, at 2 mbar after drying in the chamber, pre-dried at 4 mbar, and at 1 mbar after overnight pumping at 10^−4 mbar. The high-resolution spectra of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are presented and found to be in general agreement with XPS measurements from freeze-dried and fast-frozen bacteria. However, it was found that the amount of carbon components associated with polysaccharides increases relative to aliphatic carbon during drying and increases further after overnight pumping. This implies that drying has an impact on the bacterial surface.
Chemical modification of wood applying benzotriazolyl-activated carboxylic acids has proven to be a versatile method for the durable functionalization of its lignocellulosic biopolymers. Through this process, the material properties of Wood can be influenced and specifically optimized. To check the scope and limitations of this modification method, various benzamide derivatives with electron-withdrawing (EWG) or electron-donating (EDG) functional groups in different positions of the aromatic ring were synthesized and applied for covalent modification of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood in this study. The bonded amounts of substances (up to 2.20 mmol) were compared with the reactivity constants of the Hammett equation, revealing a significant correlation between the modification efficiency and the theoretical reactivity constants of the corresponding aromatic substitution pattern. The successful covalent attachment of the respective substituted benzamides was proven by attenuated total reflection infrared (ATR-IR) spectroscopy, while the stability of the newly formed ester bond was proven in a standardized leaching test.
Sustainability has become the conscientious and future-oriented principle of modern resource management and environmental protection because caring for the future is tantamount to providing manageable and healthy surroundings for ourselves. For the foreseeable future, geotechnical and environmental engineers must therefore be concerned with ensuring a healthy balance between extraction, processing, manufacturing, utilization, recycling, and disposal of materials and products.
Since it was realized that sites contaminated with metals and radionuclides needed treatment, various remediation methods have been and are being developed. Depending on the size of the contaminated site and urgency of intervention, conventional or recently introduced techniques have been used. Conventional techniques include excavation and removal for treatment of soil and contaminants, or the so-called “pump-and-treat” method, in which contaminated groundwater is removed from the ground by pumping and treated in a treatment plant on the surface. It has the advantage of using proven techniques and is easy to control, and the treated groundwater can be reinjected into the ground or discharged in rivers or lakes. Novel methods include permeable reactive barriers, biomineralization, and electrokinetic remediation.
Basic oxygen furnace slags (BOFS) are by-products of the steelmaking process. Several researchers have studied the production of Portland cement clinker and metallic iron from BOFS via a reductive treatment.
In this study, we applied a carbothermal reduction of BOFS in a technical-scale electric arc furnace and characterised the clinker-like products. Those clinker-like non-metallic products (NMPs) had a chemical and mineralogical composition comparable to clinker for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and contained large elongated alite crystals as major component. The pure NMPs reacted more slowly and achieved a lower degree of hydration compared with commercial OPC.
If the reactivity of the products can be further increased by employing specific adaptations, it can be used as a full clinker substitute for OPC. Nevertheless, it is also an option to use the material without further modifications as a cement component or concrete addition, which contributes to the strength development in both cases.
The pressing need for novel bioproduction approaches faces a limitation in the number and type of molecules accessed through synthetic biology. Halogenation is widely used for tuning physicochemical properties of molecules and polymers, but traditional halogenation chemistry often lacks specificity and generates harmful by-products. Here, we pose that deploying synthetic metabolism tailored for biohalogenation represents an unique opportunity towards economically attractive and environmentally friendly organohalide production. On this background, we discuss growth-coupled selection of functional metabolic modules that harness the rich repertoire of biosynthetic and biodegradation capabilities of environmental bacteria for in vivo biohalogenation. By rationally combining these approaches, the chemical landscape of Living cells can accommodate bioproduction of added-value organohalides which, as of today, are obtained by traditional chemistry.
The diversity of fused filament fabrication (FFF) filaments continues to grow rapidly as the popularity of FFF-3D desktop printers for the use as home fabrication devices has been greatly increased in the past decade. Potential harmful emissions and associated health risks when operating indoors have induced many emission studies. However, the lack of standardization of measurements impeded an objectifiable comparison of research findings. Therefore, we designed a chamber-based standard method, i.e., the strand printing method (SPM), which provides a standardized printing procedure and quantifies systematically the particle emission released from individual FFF-3D filaments under controlled conditions. Forty-four marketable filament products were tested. The total number of emitted particles (TP) varied by approximately four orders of magnitude (1E9 ≤ TP ≤ 1E13), indicating that origin of polymers, manufacturer-specific additives, and undeclared impurities have a strong influence. Our results suggest that TP characterizes an individual filament product and particle emissions cannot be categorized by the polymer type (e.g., PLA or ABS) alone. The user's choice of a filament product is therefore decisive for the exposure to released particles during operation. Thus, choosing a filament product awarded for low emissions seems to be an easily achievable preemptive measure to prevent health hazards.
Based on recently published research on leaching control mechanisms in electric arc furnace (EAF) slags, it is assumed that a FeO/SiO2 ratio of around one leads to low leached V and Cr concentrations. This ratio influences the mineral phase composition of the slag toward higher amounts of spinel and a lower solubility of calcium silicate phases by suppressing the formation of magnesiowuestite and highly soluble calcium silicate phases. To evaluate this hypothesis, laboratory and scaled up tests in an EAF pilot plant were performed on slag samples characterized by elevated V and Cr leaching and a high FeO/SiO2 ratio. Prior to the melting experiments, the optimum FeO/SiO2 ratio was calculated via FactSageTM. In the melting experiments, the ratio was adjusted by adding quartz sand, which also decreased the basicity (CaO/SiO2) of the slag. As a reference, remelting experiments without quartz sand addition were conducted and additionally, the influence of the cooling rate of the slag was examined. The remelted (without quartz sand) and the remelted modified slags (with quartz sand) were analyzed chemically and mineralogically and the leaching behavior was investigated. The modification of the slags yielded a minimized release of V and Cr, supporting the hypothesis that the FeO/SiO2 ratio influences the mineralogy and the leaching behavior.
Based on recently published research on leaching control mechanisms in electric arc furnace (EAF) slags, it is assumed that a FeO/SiO2 ratio of around one leads to low leached V and Cr concentrations. This ratio influences the mineral phase composition of the slag toward higher amounts of spinel and a lower solubility of calcium silicate phases by suppressing the formation of magnesiowuestite and highly soluble calcium silicate phases. To evaluate this hypothesis, laboratory and scaled up tests in an EAF pilot plant were performed on slag samples characterized by elevated V and Cr leaching and a high FeO/SiO2 ratio. Prior to the melting experiments, the optimum FeO/SiO2 ratio was calculated via FactSageTM. In the melting experiments, the ratio was adjusted by adding quartz sand, which also decreased the basicity (CaO/SiO2) of the slag. As a reference, remelting experiments without quartz sand addition were conducted and additionally, the influence of the cooling rate of the slag was examined. The remelted (without quartz sand) and the remelted modified slags (with quartz sand) were analyzed chemically and mineralogically and the leaching behavior was investigated. The modification of the slags yielded a minimized release of V and Cr, supporting the hypothesis that the FeO/SiO2 ratio influences the mineralogy and the leaching behavior.
For the first time, µ-X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF) mapping combined with fluorine K-edge µ-X-ray absorption near-edge structure (µ-XANES) spectroscopy was applied to depict per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contamination and inorganic fluoride in samples concentrations down to 100 µg/kg fluoride. To demonstrate the matrix tolerance of the method, several PFAS contaminated soil and sludge samples as well as selected consumer product samples (textiles, food contact paper and permanent baking sheet) were investigated. µ-XRF mapping allows for a unique element-specific visualisation at the sample surface and enables localisation of fluorine containing compounds to a depth of 1 µm. Manually selected fluorine rich spots were subsequently analysed via fluorine K-edge µ-XANES spectroscopy. To support spectral interpretation with respect to inorganic and organic chemical distribution and compound class determination, linear combination (LC) fitting was applied to all recorded µ-XANES spectra. Complementarily, solvent extracts of all samples were target-analysed via LC-MS/MS spectrometry. The detected PFAS sum values range from 20 to 1136 µg/kg dry weight (dw). All environmentally exposed samples revealed higher concentration of PFAS with a chain length >C8 (e.g. 580 µg/kg dw PFOS for Soil1), whereas the consumer product samples showed a more uniform distribution with regard to chain lengths from C4 to C8. Independent from quantified PFAS amounts via target analysis, µ-XRF mapping combined with µ-XANES spectroscopy was successfully applied to detect both point-specific concentration maxima and evenly distributed surface coatings of fluorinated organic contaminants in the corresponding samples.
The halophilic bacterium Halomonas elongata can tolerate salt concentrations above 10% NaCl and uses the accumulation of the compatible solute ectoine as a major osmoregulatory mechanism. Ectoine can be accumalted inside the cell through import from the medium or de novo synthesis and establishes an osmotic equilibrium with the surrounding1. Ectoine also protects proteins from the effects of freezing, drying and high temperatures4 and DNA from ionizing radiation2. These features make ectoine a valuable compound for cosmetics and medical devices.
H. elongata was originally isolated from a solar salt facility, where it thrives under high salt concentrations. It was found that marine prokaryotes, which are exposed to high oxidative stress in their environment, vary glycolytic strategies5. A variation in the use of the glucose metabolic pathways is also assumed for H. elongata.
Recent DNA-based studies have shown that the built environment is surprisingly rich in fungi. These indoor fungi – whether transient visitors or more persistent residents – may hold clues to the rising levels of human allergies and other medical and building-related health problems observed globally. The taxo¬nomic identity of these fungi is crucial in such pursuits. Molecular identification of the built mycobiome is no trivial undertaking, however, given the large number of unidentified, misidentified, and technically compromised fungal sequences in public sequence databases. In addition, the sequence metadata required to make informed taxonomic decisions – such as country and host/substrate of collection – are often lacking even from reference and ex-type sequences. Here we report on a taxonomic annotation workshop (April 10–11, 2017) organized at the James Hutton Institute/University of Aberdeen (UK) to facilitate reproducible studies of the built mycobiome. The 32 participants went through public fungal ITS bar¬code sequences related to the built mycobiome for taxonomic and nomenclatural correctness, technical quality, and metadata availability. A total of 19,508 changes – including 4,783 name changes, 14,121 metadata annotations, and the removal of 99 technically compromised sequences – were implemented in the UNITE database for molecular identification of fungi (https://unite.ut.ee/) and shared with a range of other databases and downstream resources. Among the genera that saw the largest number of changes were Penicillium, Talaromyces, Cladosporium, Acremonium, and Alternaria, all of them of significant importance in both culture-based and culture-independent surveys of the built environment.
Fluorides are well-known as wood preservatives. One of the limitations of fluoride-based wood preservatives is their high leachability. Alternative to current fluoride salts such as NaF used in wood protection are low water-soluble fluorides. However, impregnation of low water-soluble fluorides into wood poses a challenge. To address this challenge, low water-soluble fluorides like calcium fluoride (CaF2) and magnesium fluoride (MgF2) were synthesized as nanoparticles via the fluorolytic sol−gel synthesis and then impregnated into wood specimens. In this study, the toxicity of nano metal fluorides was assessed by termite mortality, mass loss and visual analysis of treated specimens after eight weeks of exposure to termites, Coptotermes formosanus. Nano metal fluorides with sol concentrations of 0.5 M and higher were found to be effective against termites resulting in 100% termite mortality and significantly inhibited termite feeding. Among the formulations tested, the least damage was found for specimens treated with combinations of CaF2 and MgF2 with an average mass loss less than 1% and visual rating of “1”. These results demonstrate the efficacy of low water-soluble nano metal fluorides to protect Wood from termite attack.
Fluorides are well-known as wood preservatives. One of the limitations of fluoride-based wood preservatives is their high leachability. Alternative to current fluoride salts such as NaF used in wood protection are low water-soluble fluorides. However, impregnation of low water-soluble fluorides into wood poses a challenge. To address this challenge, low water-soluble fluorides like calcium fluoride (CaF2) and magnesium fluoride (MgF2) were synthesized as nanoparticles via the fluorolytic sol−gel synthesis and then impregnated into wood specimens. In this study, the toxicity of nano metal fluorides was assessed by termite mortality, mass loss and visual analysis of treated specimens after eight weeks of exposure to termites, Coptotermes formosanus. Nano metal fluorides with sol concentrations of 0.5 M and higher were found to be effective against termites resulting in 100% termite mortality and significantly inhibited termite feeding. Among the formulations tested, the least damage was found for specimens treated with combinations of CaF2 and MgF2 with an average mass loss less than 1% and visual rating of “1”. These results demonstrate the efficacy of low water-soluble nano metal fluorides to protect wood from termite attack.
The importance of soldiers to termite Society defence has long been recognized, but the contribution of soldiers to other societal functions, such as colony immunity, is less well understood.
We explore this issue by examining the role of soldiers in protecting nestmates against pathogen infection. Even though they are unable to engage in grooming behaviour, we find that the presence of soldiers of the Darwin termite, Mastotermes darwiniensis, significantly improves the survival of nestmates following entomopathogenic infection.
We also show that the copious exocrine oral secretions produced by Darwin termite soldiers contain a high concentration of Proteins involved in digestion, chemical biosynthesis, and immunity. The oral secretions produced by soldiers are sufficient to protect nestmates against infection, and they have potent inhibitory activity against a broad spectrum of microbes. Our findings support the view that soldiers may play an important role in colony immunity, and broaden our understanding of the possible function of soldiers during the origin of soldier-first societies.
Social insects employ a range of behaviours to protect their colonies against disease, but little is known about how such collective behaviours are orchestrated. This is especially true for the social Blattodea (termites). We developed an experimental approach that allowed us to explore how the social response to disease is co-ordinated by multistep host-pathogen interactions. We infected the eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes with the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, and then, at different stages of infection, reintroduced them to healthy nestmates and recorded behavioural responses. As expected, termites groomed pathogen-exposed individuals significantly more than controls; however, grooming was significantly elevated after fungal germination than before, demonstrating the importance of fungal status to hygienic behaviour. Significantly, we found that cannibalism became prevalent only after exposed termites became visibly ill, highlighting the importance of host condition as a cue for social hygienic behaviour. Our study reveals the presence of a coordinated social response to disease that depends on stage of infection. Specifically, we show how the host may play a key role in triggering its own sacrifice. Sacrificial self-flagging has been observed in other social insects: our results demonstrate that termites have independently evolved to both recognize and destructively respond to sickness.
Territories of rock-inhabiting fungi: Survival on and alteration of solid air-exposed surfaces
(2018)
Subaerial biofilms that are omnipresent at the interface between all solid substrates and the atmosphere are composed of a unique and widespread group of ascomycetes called rock-inhabiting fungi or microcolonial fungi (MCF), typically in communities with other microorganisms. While subaerial biofilms in toto have important roles in mineral weathering and biodeterioration of materials, methodological approaches to subaerial biofilm communities are diverse and frequently focussed on MCF. Here, we review the historical development of the research methods applied in the field and consider perspectives to increase our understanding of the biofilm-induced changes of solid substrate surfaces.
The OECD Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials (WPMN) has actively worked towards understanding possible safety issues for manufactured nanomaterials and has contributed significantly to resolving these by developing Test Guidelines, Guidance Documents, Test Reports and other publications with the aim of a safe use of manufactured nanomaterials. To address the specific needs of manufactured nanomaterials, the OECD Test Guideline No. 110 “Particle Size Distribution/Fibre Length and Diameter Distributions” was identified as one of the test guidelines (TGs) to require an update. The current TG 110 (adopted in 1981) is only valid for particles and fibres with sizes above 250 nm. The WPMN prioritised to either update TG 110 to be applicable also to particles at the nanoscale or draft a new nanomaterial specific (TG).
Eventually, it was decided to develop a new TG that covers the size range from 1 nm to 1000 nm, intended for particle size and particle size distribution measurements of nanomaterials. Paragraph 11 provides further justification on the need for such measurements for nanomaterials. This TG overlaps with TG 110 in the size range from 250 nm to 1000 nm. When measuring particulate or fibrous materials, the appropriate TG should be selected depending on the size range of particles tested. In line with TG 110, the new TG for nanomaterials includes separate parts for particles and fibres.
For the part of this TG which addresses particles, several methods applicable to nanomaterials were reviewed and included to take into account developments since 1981 when the TG 110 was adopted. This TG includes the following methods: Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Centrifugal Liquid Sedimentation (CLS)/Analytical Ultracentrifugation (AUC), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Differential Mobility Analysis System (DMAS), (Nano)Particle Tracking Analysis (PTA/NTA), Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The method Single Particle Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (sp-ICP-MS) could not be sufficiently validated within the interlaboratory comparison (ILC) carried out for the different methods in this TG (see also paragraph 6 for further details on the ILC). Applicability of sp-ICP-MS is strongly limited to nanomaterials with high mass values in combination with a sufficiently high particle size. However, the general method ICP-MS is widely used and the sp-mode for the size measurement of specific nanomaterials was successfully performed in ILCs elsewhere. The method is therefore included in the Appendix Part C of this TG, which further details the limitations of sp-ICP-MS.
For measuring the diameter and length of fibres, analysing images captured with electron microscopy is currently the only method available. This TG includes Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM).
To test the validity of this TG, an ILC was performed. Test materials were chosen to reflect a broad range of nanomaterial classes, e.g. metals, metal oxides, polymers and carbon materials. Where possible, well-characterised test materials were used.
Additionally, the test materials were chosen to reflect a broad range of sizes representing the size range 1 nm to 1000 nm. Specifically for fibres, a broad range of aspect ratios was included (length/diameter of 3 to > 50). Some of the test materials used are commercially available and further references are given in the validation report of the ILC. Sample preparation for physical chemical characterisation is critical for all listed methods. Due to the differences between individual nanomaterials and due to the wide range of individual material properties it is impossible to have a generic protocol to obtain the best possible sample preparation for every nanomaterial. Therefore, a generic protocol on sample preparation is not part of this TG. Information on sample preparation is given in the paragraphs 25-29, 33, 34 and 39 for particles and in paragraphs 159) for fibres. Further information on sample preparation of nanomaterials for physical chemical characterisation can be found in the OECD Guidance on Sample Preparation and Dosimetry for the Safety Testing of Manufactured Nanomaterials and elsewhere.