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Organisationseinheit der BAM
- 4 Material und Umwelt (1128)
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- 6 Materialchemie (90)
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Paper des Monats
- ja (19)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by furniture and
building materials can cause health issues. For an
improvement of indoor air quality low emitting materials
should be used. Quality assurance and –control (QA/QC)
measures require an emission reference material (ERM) with a
predictable emission rate of VOCs. The idea is to use porous
materials as ERM, which store the VOCs inside their pores and
emit them constantly.
Antimicrobials can exert specific physiological effects when used in combination that are different from those when applied alone. While combination effects have been extensively mapped for antibiotic-antibiotic combinations, the combination effects of antibiotics with antimicrobials used as biocides or antiseptics have not been systematically investigated. Here, we investigated the effects of combinations of antibiotics (meropenem, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin) and substances used as biocides or antiseptics [octenidine, benzalkonium chloride, cetrimonium bromide, chlorhexidine, Povidone-iodine, silver nitrate (AgNO3), and Ag-nanoparticles] on the planktonic growth rate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Combination effects were investigated in growth experiments in microtiter plates at different concentrations and the Bliss interaction scores were calculated. Among the 21 screened combinations, we find prevalent combination effects with synergy occurring six times and antagonism occurring 10 times. The effects are specific to the antibiotic-biocide combination with meropenem showing a tendency for antagonism with biocides (6 of 7), while gentamicin has a tendency for synergy (5 of 7). In conclusion, antibiotics and biocides or antiseptics exert physiological combination effects on the pathogen P. aeruginosa. These effects have consequences for the efficacy of both types of substances and potentially for the selection of antimicrobial resistant strains in clinical applications with combined exposure (e.g., wound care and coated biomaterials).
Soil microbes are exposed to different environmental stressors originating from various sources. Biocides used as material preservatives can represent environmental stressors since they are in direct contact with the environment including soil. Microorganism in soils can adapt to stress by different mechanisms; for example, by transferring mobile genetic elements via horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Here, we hypothesize that material preservatives can cause increased frequencies of HGT (i.e. altered community permissiveness) facilitating microbial community adaptation to stress. Furthermore, we hypothesize that soil microbial communities are primed by biocide exposure facilitating the response to different types of stresses. We will incubate soil mesocosms with selected biocides to investigate if these compounds promote HGT of plasmids that carry resistance genes in soil microbial communities. Subsequently, we will prime the soil microbial community with sub-inhibitory concentrations of biocides followed by exposure to toxic biocide concentrations or other types of common environmental stresses including metals, antibiotics, and salt. Using suitable control experiments, a shift in the functional response of the primed as compared to the non-primed community would indicate that biocides prime microbial communities via HGT. Together these results will elucidate the effect of biocides on HGT-mediated adaptation to environmental stressors in soil microbial communities.
Soil microbes are exposed to different environmental stressors originating from various sources. Biocides used as material preservatives can represent environmental stressors since they are in direct contact with the environment including soil. Microorganism in soils can adapt to stress by different mechanisms; for example, by transferring mobile genetic elements via horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Here, we hypothesize that material preservatives can cause increased frequencies of HGT (i.e. altered community permissiveness) facilitating microbial community adaptation to stress. Furthermore, we hypothesize that soil microbial communities are primed by biocide exposure facilitating the response to different types of stresses. We will incubate soil mesocosms with selected biocides to investigate if these compounds promote HGT of plasmids that carry resistance genes in soil microbial communities. Subsequently, we will prime the soil microbial community with sub-inhibitory concentrations of biocides followed by exposure to toxic biocide concentrations or other types of common environmental stresses including metals, antibiotics, and salt. Using suitable control experiments, a shift in the functional response of the primed as compared to the non-primed community would indicate that biocides prime microbial communities via HGT. Together these results will elucidate the effect of biocides on HGT-mediated adaptation to environmental stressors in soil microbial communities.
Vaccination is defined as the stimulation and development of the adaptive immune system by administering specific antigens. Vaccines' efficacy, in inducing immunity, varies in different societies due to economic, social, and biological conditions. One of the influential biological factors is gut microbiota. Cross-talks between gut bacteria and the host immune system are initiated at birth during microbial colonization and directly control the immune responses and protection against pathogen colonization. Imbalances in the gut microbiota composition, termed dysbiosis, can trigger several immune disorders through the activity of the adaptive immune system and impair the adequate response to the vaccination. The bacteria used in probiotics are often members of the gut microbiota, which have health benefits for the host. Probiotics are generally consumed as a component of fermented foods, affect both innate and acquired immune systems, and decrease infections. This review aimed to discuss the gut microbiota's role in regulating immune responses to vaccination and how probiotics can help induce immune responses against pathogens. Finally, probiotic-based oral vaccines and their efficacy have been discussed.
The project ProMoAM is presented. The goal of the project is to evaluate which NDT techniques or combination of techniques is suited for in-situ quality assurance in additive manufacturing of metals. To this end, also 3d-data fusion and visualization techniques are applied. Additional ex-situ NDT-techniques are used as references for defect detection and quantification. Feasability studies for NDT-techniques that are presently not applicable for in-situ use are performed as well.
The presentation gives a brief overview of the whole project and the different involved NDT-techniques.
Geosynthetic materials are applied in measures for coastal protection. Weathering or any damage of constructions, as shown by a field study in Kaliningrad Oblast (Russia), could lead to the littering of the beach or the sea (marine littering) and the discharge of possibly harmful additives into the marine environment. The ageing behavior of a widely used geotextile made of polypropylene was studied by artificial accelerated ageing in water-filled autoclaves at temperatures of 30 to 80° C
and pressures of 10 to 50 bar. Tensile strength tests were used to evaluate the progress of ageing, concluding that temperature rather than pressure was the main factor influencing the ageing of geotextiles. Using a modified Arrhenius equation, it was possible to calculate the half-life for the loss of 50% of the strain, which corresponds to approximately 330 years.
Steelmaking slag is a by-product of steel production, of which 4.5 Mt were produced in 2020 in Germany alone. It is mainly used in road construction, earthwork and hydraulic engineering. A smaller part is returned to the metallurgical cycle, used as fertiliser or landfilled.
With this use, iron oxides still contained in steelmaking slag are lost. In addition, the possibility of producing higher-grade products from steelmaking slag is foregone. In recent decades, many researchers have investigated the production of Portland cement clinker and crude iron from basic oxygen furnace slags (BOFS) via a reductive treatment. Carbothermal treatment of liquid BOFS causes a reduction of iron oxides to metallic iron, which separates from the mineral phase due to its higher density. Simultaneously, the chemical composition of the reduced slag is adapted to that of Portland cement clinker.
In this study, German BOFS was reduced in a small-scale electric arc furnace using petrol coke as a reducing agent. The resulting low-iron mineral product has a similar chemical composition to Portland cement clinker and was rich in the tricalcium silicate solid solution alite (Ca3SiO5). Based on its chemical and mineralogical composition, similar to that of Portland cement clinker, the reduced BOFS has the potential to react comparably. In our study, the reduced BOFS produced less hydration heat than OPC, and its hydraulic reaction was delayed. However, adding gypsum has shown to accelerate the hydration rate of the reduced BOFS compared to that known from the calcium silicates of Portland cement clinker.
Further research to improve the hydraulic properties of the reduced slag is essential. If successful, producing a hydraulic binder and crude iron from BOFS has economic and ecological benefits for both the cement and steel industries.
Steelmaking slag is a by-product of steel production of which 4.5 Mt were produced in 2020 in Germany alone. It is mainly used in road construction, earthwork and hydraulic engineering. A smaller part is returned to the metallurgical circle, used as fertilizer or landfilled.
With this use, iron oxides still contained in steelmaking slag are lost. In addition, the possibility of producing higher-grade products from steelmaking slag is foregone. In recent decades, many researchers have investigated the production of Portland cement clinker and crude iron from basic oxygen furnace slags (BOFS) via a reductive treatment. Carbothermal treatment of liquid BOFS causes a reduction of iron oxides to metallic iron, which separates from the mineral phase due to its higher density. Simultaneously, the chemical composition of the reduced slag is adapted to that of the Portland cement clinker.
In this study, German BOFS was reduced in a small-scale electric arc furnace using petrol coke as a reducing agent. The resulting low-iron mineral product had a similar chemical composition to Portland cement clinker and was rich in the tricalcium silicate solid solution alite (Ca3SiO5). Based on its chemical and mineralogical composition, similar to that of Portland cement clinker, the reduced BOFS has the potential to react comparably. In our study, the reduced BOFS produced less heat of hydration compared to OPC and its hydraulic reaction was delayed. However, adding gypsum has been shown to accelerate the hydration rate of the reduced BOFS compared to that known from the calcium silicates of Portland cement clinker.
Further research to improve the hydraulic properties of the reduced slag is essential. If successful, producing a hydraulic binder and crude iron from BOFS could have economic and ecological benefits for both the cement and steel industry.
Basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) is a by-product of steelmaking of which about 10.4 Mt are produced annually in the EU. BOFS is mostly used in road construction, earthwork and hydraulic engineering. However, in this use, the iron bound in BOFS is lost and the opportunity to produce higher value products from BOFS is forgone.
In recent decades, many researchers have investigated the production of both Portland cement clinker and crude iron from BOFS via a thermochemical reductive treatment. The reductive treatment of liquid BOFS causes a reduction of iron oxides to metallic iron, which separates from the mineral phase due to its higher density and can be recovered. An advantage of this process is that simultaneously the chemical composition of the reduced BOFS is adapted to that of Portland cement clinker and the hydraulic reactive mineral alite (Ca3SiO5) is formed.
In this study, German BOFS was reduced in a small-scale electric arc furnace and a low-iron mineral product rich in alite was produced. Despite a chemical and mineralogical composition similar to that of Portland cement clinker, the reduced BOFS produced less heat of hydration, and its reaction was delayed compared to Portland cement. However, adding gypsum accelerated the hydration rate of the reduced BOFS.
Further research to improve the hydraulic properties of the reduced BOFS is essential. If successful, the production of a hydraulic material and crude iron from BOFS could have economic and ecological benefits for both the cement and steel industry.
The diversity of fused filament fabrication (FFF) filaments continues to grow rapidly as the popularity of FFF-3D desktop printers for the use as home fabrication devices has been greatly increased in the past decade. Potential harmful emissions and associated health risks when operating indoors have induced many emission studies. However, the lack of standardization of measurements impeded an objectifiable comparison of research findings. Therefore, we designed a chamber-based standard method, i.e., the strand printing method (SPM), which provides a standardized printing procedure and quantifies systematically the particle emission released from individual FFF-3D filaments under controlled conditions. Forty-four marketable filament products were tested. The total number of emitted particles (TP) varied by approximately four orders of magnitude (1E9 ≤ TP ≤ 1E13), indicating that origin of polymers, manufacturer-specific additives, and undeclared impurities have a strong influence. Our results suggest that TP characterizes an individual filament product and particle emissions cannot be categorized by the polymer type (e.g., PLA or ABS) alone. The user's choice of a filament product is therefore decisive for the exposure to released particles during operation. Thus, choosing a filament product awarded for low emissions seems to be an easily achievable preemptive measure to prevent health hazards.
Das Prozessmonitoring stellt einen wichtigen Baustein für eine Qualitätssicherung additiv gefertigter Bauteile dar, insbesondere bei kleinen Losgrößen. Der Vortrag zeigt einen Überblick aktueller Entwicklungen der BAM im Bereich des Prozessmonitorings für das Laserstrahlschmelzen (laser powder bed fusion) metallischer Werkstoffe. Durch Vergleich mit der Referenzmethode Computertomografie wird am Beispiel der thermografischen Verfahren gezeigt, wie relevante Defekte in Bauteilen detektiert werden können und Einsatzpotenziale sowie Limitierungen aufgezeigt.
Bauprodukte, die in Innenräumen verwendet werden, sollten die Gesundheit und das Wohlbefinden der Personen die sich darin aufhalten nicht durch das Ausdünsten von Geruchsstoffen stören. Die DIN ISO 16000-28 „Bestimmung der Geruchsstoffemissionen aus Bauprodukten mit einer Emissionsprüfkammer“ (DIN ISO 16000-28) beschreibt umfassend die Möglichkeiten der Geruchsprüfung. In Verbindung mit der Anwendung der VDI-Richtlinie 4302 Blatt 1 „Geruchsprüfung von Innenraumluft und Emissionen aus Innenraummaterialien“ (VDI 4302 Blatt 1) ist sie zur Bewertung der empfundenen Intensität von Bauprodukten mit Vergleichsmaßstab geeignet (Umweltbundesamt 2015). In einem vom Umweltbundesamt (UBA) geförderten Forschungsprojekt der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW Berlin) und der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) wurden erstmals verschiedene Vergleichsmaßstäbe miteinander verglichen. Ziel des derzeitigen Folgeprojektes ist nun, Mindestanforderungen an Vergleichsmaßstäbe zu erarbeiten, welche die Reproduzierbarkeit der Ergebnisse erhöhen und mit denen die Norm konkretisiert werden kann. Dieser Beitrag stellt die Untersuchungen und Ergebnisse des ersten Projektes und die Schlussfolgerungen für die Durchführung des zweiten Projektes dar.
The possible impact of ultrafine particles from laser printers on human health is controversially discussed although there are persons reporting substantial symptoms in relation to these emissions. A randomized, single-blinded, cross-over experimental design with two exposure conditions (high-level and low-level exposure) was conducted with 23 healthy subjects, 14 subjects with mild asthma, and 15 persons reporting symptoms associated with laser printer emissions. To separate physiological and psychological effects, a secondary physiologically based categorization of susceptibility to particle effects was used. In line with results from physiological and biochemical assessments, we found no coherent, differential, or clinically relevant effects of different exposure conditions on subjective complaints and cognitive performance in terms of attention, short-term memory, and psychomotor performance. However, results regarding the psychological characteristics of participants and their situational perception confirm differences between the participants groups: Subjects reporting symptoms associated with laser printer emissions showed a higher psychological susceptibility for adverse reactions in line with previous results on persons with multiple chemical sensitivity or idiopathic environmental intolerance. In conclusion, acute psychological and cognitive effects of laser printer emissions were small and could be attributed only to different participant groups but not to differences in exposure conditions in terms of particle number concentrations.
Generation of experimental uptake rates (UR) for > 70 VOCs (7d /100 μg m-3)
Application in German Environmental Survey – VOC exposure assessment
Assurance of transparency concerning UR generation and uncertainty creates basis for decision making and comparability of measurement results.
Exemplarily the uncertainty u(UR) of toluene UR was modelled and determined statistically with own laboratory data (relative standard deviation of actively sampled test gas atmosphere – RSDa and n = 5 exposed passive samplers – RSDp) in line with EN 838 as well as from variation of literature UR – RSD UR,lit.
Quality Improvement of VOC chamber emission tests observed for 10 years with round robin tests
(2018)
In Europe, the Construction Products Regulation (CPR, 2011/305/EU) sets basic requirements (BR) on how construction works must be designed and built. BR 3 “hygiene, health and the environment” states low emissions of toxic gases, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCVOCs), particles, etc. from building materials. Meanwhile, a worldwide network of professional Commercial and non-commercial laboratories performing emission tests for the evaluation of products for interior use has been established.
Therefore, comparability of test results must be ensured. The participation in Round Robin Tests (RRTRRTs) is a means to prove a laboratory’s proficiency. Since 2006 BAM offers such proficiency test for emission chamber test every two years.
Any commercially available product on the market can be used as reference material, provided it is thoroughly characterised. However, these materials often emit only a few and material specific VOCs and appropriate homogeneity is not given. Therefore, alternative materials should be found. BAM used different materials over the years. Currently, the best suited reference material is a cured lacquer surface which contained several VOCs added to the liquid lacquer system. The round robin tests 2014, 2016 and 2018 were conducted with such a system.
Compounds like Styrene or n-Alkanes like Decane or Tridecane were tested in many of the proficiency test operated by BAM. Up to now the relative standard deviation of these compounds decrease continuously. Starting with values about 30 % in 2008 we reached values for the mentioned compounds 15 to 20 % now. But even for more polar compounds improved results were received.
Over the years the results of a large group of laboratories detected many compounds with much higher accuracy than at the beginning. So, the comparability between results of different laboratories becomes much better.
A mobile Bruker S2 Picofox TXRF spectrometer has been used in two field campaigns within the EMPIR env07 AEROMET project for the on-site analysis of cascade impactor aerosol samples.The results show that even at moderate air pollution levels – i.e.PM10 fairly below 20 μg/m³ - element mass concentrations in air in the range of 100 pg/m³could be measured in up to 13 size bins after sampling times of less than only 0.5 days.
Quantitative chemical analysis of airborne particulate matter (PM) is vital for the understanding of health effects in indoor and outdoor environments, as well as for enforcing EU air quality regulations. Typically, airborne particles are sampled over long time periods on filters, followed by lab-based analysis, e.g., with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). During the EURAMET EMPIR AEROMET project, cascade impactor aerosol sampling is combined for the first time with on-site total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF) spectroscopy to develop a tool for quantifying particle element compositions within short time intervals and even on-site. This makes variations of aerosol chemistry observable with time resolution only a few hours and with good size resolution in the PM10 range. The study investigates the proof of principles of this methodological approach. Acrylic discs and silicon wafers are shown to be suitable impactor carriers with sufficiently smooth and clean surfaces, and a non-destructive elemental mass concentration measurement with a lower limit of detection around 10 pg/m3 could be achieved. We demonstrate the traceability of field TXRF measurements to a radiometrically calibrated TXRF reference, and the results from both analytical methods correspond satisfactorily.
Antibiotic resistance is a growing global problem which poses a massive threat to human health. Although human activity contributes to the acceleration of the process, bacteria have a self-driven stabilisation mechanism to protect themselves from such and other external threats: biofilm formation. Nonetheless, it is the adhesion of a single bacterial cell to a surface that triggers the formation of such network of biomolecules and microorganisms, as well as its hazardous consequences. The main objective of this work was to quantify the adhesion force of a single E. coli cell on a Ti substrate via the AFM-related single-cell force spectroscopy, with both the cell and the substrate material being of high clinical relevance. A set of 25 x 25 force displacement curves was acquired with a maximum force of 3.2 nN without dwell time, yielding a topography map and an adhesion force map that showed to be correlated. A mean adhesion force of 0.85 ± 0.175 nN was measured and the presence of cell appendages on the bacterial cell wall was verified through individual force-displacement curves. Bacterial viability was assessed after the measurements via live/dead staining.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were classified as a group of highly concerning chemicals over the last decades. Because of the high persistence of PFAS, their previous use led to contamination of the environment and human population. Due to ongoing use and incomplete remediation or destruction methods, the PFAS background in the environment is growing continuously.
The presence of ultrashort PFAS (with ≤3 carbon atoms) in the environment is often overlooked despite their contributions to PFAS levels. These compounds may directly contaminate the environment and arise from degradation of polyfluorinated compounds as well as incomplete PFAS destruction in certain industrial processes. Nonetheless, few approaches for targeted analysis of ultrashort PFASs have been developed, except for trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). Beside liquid (LC-MS/MS), supercritical fluid (SFC-MS/MS), and ion chromatography (IC-MS)-based systems, gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a promising method for detection and quantification of ultrashort PFAS.
The goal of this study was to develop a simple headspace GC-MS method for the quantification of ultrashort perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and polyfluorinated alcohols (PFOHs) in water samples. In contrast to PFOHs, functionalization of PFCAs was required for quantification. This was done by esterification with methanol at 80 °C, which can be carried out directly in the headspace GC-MS system.
Moreover, several parameters were optimized to achieve a low limit of quantification (LOQ) for the analytes used: i) The ratio of the aqueous solution, methanol, and available gas phase within the analysis vessel, ii) the concentration of additional acid in esterification mixtures of PFCAs, iii) shaking frequency and iv) shaking time before analysis. After optimizing the procedure, we were able to quantify ultrashort PFCAs and PFOHs. Thus, our developed headspace GC-MS method has the potential to be used as an alternative target analysis for ultrashort-chain PFCAs and PFOHs in various water samples (groundwater, wastewater).
Ultrashort PFAS (≤ 3 carbon atoms) were overlooked for a long time in analytical monitoring. Beside through the use of these substances, they contribute to the PFAS background in the environment through (environmental/ bio-) degradation and incomplete destruction3 of PFAS with longer carbon chains or other fluorinated compounds. As part of the German-Israeli Cooperation in Water Technology Research project „Detection, quantification, and treatment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in groundwater“ (DEFEAT-PFAS), we are developing an as simple as possible direct headspace (HS-)GC-MS method to detect trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and perfluoropropanioc acid (PFPrA), as well as trifluoroethanol (TFEtOH), pentafluoropropanol(PFPrOH) and hexafluoroiospropanol (HFIP) in water samples. Here we present the results of the PFAS mentioned in spiked ultrapure water solutions.
A reliable analysis of aerosol particle is curial for enforcing EU air quality regulations to protect human health, and for research on climate change effects [1]. Although metrics such as PM10 and PM2.5 are currently in use, the level of uncertainty of aerosol metrics is too high and the traceability is insufficient. Within the AEROMET project [2] procedures are developed aiming at reducing the uncertainties of particle mass, size, and number concentration measurements including the characterization of regulated components in airborne particles. Here, we present an approach how to improve the uncertainties of the particle mass by mobile total reflection x-ray fluorescence (TXRF) analysis. The combination of TXRF and aerosols sampling techniques supported by reference-free synchrotron radiation-based XRF enables a quantitative real-time analysis of particle mass. During in-field campaigns, the procedure was tested, monitoring the size dependent mass concentrations of specific elements in ambient aerosols under dynamic conditions. This approach allows a direct time and size-resolved analysis without laborious digestion steps and a reduced risk of contamination.
Aerosol particles were sampled in a 13-stage DLPI impactor on acrylic discs. TXRF analysis was performed on-site with the transportable spectrometer S2 PICOFOX (Bruker Nano GmbH). The TXRF quantification was based on internal standardization. At moderate air pollution levels (PM10 20 µg/m³) sampling times of less than 2 hours were enough to detect elements in different particle size bins. The on-site approach and the high sensitivity of TXRF enables the observation of rather quick changes in the quantity and distribution of elements in an ambient aerosol on the day of sampling. The analysis of the morning and afternoon sampling shifts reveals the occurrence of the elements Fe, Ca and Si in different size bins as well as their temporal change in respective mass concentrations over the day while the distributions of several other elements remain unchanged.
L'archéométrie est une discipline riche qui peut nous apporter beaucoup d'informations sur l'étude des manuscrits et qui, conjuguée à la paléographie et la codicologie, peut s'apporter un outil précieux pour mieux appréhender les sociétés qui ont produits ces manuscrits.
Nous verrons ici quelques exemples de techniques scientifiques non destructives, principalement appliqués à la Génizah du Caire, appliquées à l'étude des manuscrits.
Im Verbundprojekt R-Rhenania wird eine industrielle Demonstrationsanlage am Standort der Monoverbrennungsanlage Altenstadt der Firma Emter errichtet und im Jahr 2024 den Betrieb aufnehmen. Die vorhandene Rostfeuerung-Monoverbrennung wird so umgebaut, dass ein neues thermochemisches Verfahren integriert werden kann, welches hochwirksame und schadstoffarme Dünger produziert (bis zu 17.000 t/a). Die thermochemischen Produkte werden in Gefäß- und Feldversuchen im ökologischen Landbau auf ihre Düngewirkung getestet. Die Umweltverträglichkeit der Demonstrationsanlage wird untersucht, wie auch die Übertragbarkeit des Verfahrens auf weitere Regionen.
In Bayern wird Klärschlamm aus der kommunalen Abwasserreinigung weitgehend verbrannt. Monoverbrennungsanlagen - ausschließlich für kommunalen Klärschlamm - gibt es in Altenstadt, München, Gendorf, Straubing, Neu-Ulm und zukünftig auch in Augsburg. Die Anlage in Altenstadt verbrennt jährlich ca. 55.000 t Klärschlamm-Trockensubstanz und produziert dabei rund 15.000 t phosphatreiche Aschen.
Die Asche aus Altenstadt wird zurzeit überwiegend direkt landwirtschaftlich genutzt. Aufgrund der niedrigen Schadstoffgehalte ist diese Nutzung nach den düngemittelrechtlichen Regelungen gesetzlich zulässig. Um der Intention der neuen Düngeverordnung (26. Mai 2017) nach hocheffizienten, d.h. gut pflanzenverfügbaren Düngemitteln zu entsprechen, ist eine Aufbereitung der Klärschlammasche geplant. Im Rahmen des R-Rhenania Projektes errichten der Betreiber der Klärschlammverbrennungsanlage Altenstadt in Bayern Emter GmbH - und der Düngemittelhersteller sePura GmbH gemeinsam eine AshDec®-Demonstrationsanlage, die im Jahr 2023 den Betrieb aufnehmen soll. Das angewandte AshDec®-Verfahren schließt die Phosphate in der Klärschlammasche thermisch im Drehrohrofen auf und macht diese für Pflanzen vollständig verfügbar. Gleichzeitig werden Schadstoffe wie Arsen, Blei und Cadmium entfernt. Den thermischen Aufschluss kennt man bereits vom erfolgreichen, aber nicht mehr produzierten Düngemittel „Rhenania-Phosphat“, das auf der Basis von Rohphosphaten hergestellt wurde.
Die geplante Anlage wird neben den Aschen aus Altenstadt zusätzlich die Aschen aus weiteren bayerischen Verbrennungsanlagen verwerten und für eine Kapazität von 30.000 Jahrestonnen Asche ausgelegt sein. Der Projektpartner sePura plant den produzierten Dünger vollständig in Bayern zu verwerten. Dies verringert die Umweltbelastung durch lange Transportwege und fördert die Regionalität des Vorhabens.
Rechtliche Vorgaben der Klärschlammverordnung und deren Auswirkungen auf die Phosphor-Rückgewinnung
(2022)
Im Abfalltechnik-Ausschuss der Bund/Länder-Arbeitsgemeinschaft Abfall (LAGA) wurde eine Vollzugshilfe zur Klärschlammverordnung erarbeitet, die nach Verabschiedung durch die Umweltministerkonferenz Mitte Mai 2020 als LAGA-Merkblatt M-39 veröffentlicht wurde. Im vorliegenden vierten Arbeitsbericht der DWA-Arbeitsgruppe KEK-1.1 werden verschiedene Aspekte der ab dem Jahr 2029 geltenden Regelungen aufgegriffen und damit einige Punkte des LAGA M-39 hinsichtlich der technischen Auswirkungen für den Kläranlagenbetreiber konkret ausgeführt.
Small grain size fractions of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) bottom ash (BA) contain elemental and chemically bonded metals in appreciable amounts, especially copper. Investigations with a centrifugal concentrator were carried out using samples, which had been treated with different impact devices. Partly the impacts of single devices were visible in outlines, but mostly the surfaces of the metals were still covered with mineral residues. To generate copper rich fractions, parameters of the separation process should ensure mass yields <2%, best between 0.5 and 1%. The density of the concentrates is then generally >3.2 g/cm3. Best results were achieved with material from a special treatment train which is adapted to grain sizes <2 mm. Reliable copper contents between 20 and 40% (single runs >50%) could be realised.
However, considering the required mass yields, referred to this subset only 150–170 g copper would be recovered from 1 Mg MSWI BA. Furthermore, this copper is only in parts present in elemental form. A
dependable added value of such treatment step seems to be given only, if that enables a recycling of the mineral aggregates (tailings) in parallel to avoid landfill costs.
During iron and steel production, several by-products such as slags, dusts and sludges are generated in addition to pig iron and steel as primary products. While established recycling routes exist for slags, there are still considerable recycling problems for other residual materials, especially for filter dusts and sludges containing zinc and lead from waste gas purification. However, the high heavy metal contents make landfilling these dusts and sludges cost-intensive and ecologically problematic. In addition, the relatively high zinc and iron loads represent a valuable material potential, which can make reprocessing of the material with recovery of the zinc and iron loads as secondary raw materials ecologically as well as economically attractive. Against this background, a process is being developed in a cooperative project between Ferro Duo GmbH and the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), in which the heavy metals (zinc, lead, cadmium, etc.) contained in the filter dusts and sludges are selectively converted into chlorides in a thermochemical process after the addition of a chlorine donor and evaporated at temperatures between 650 and 1100 °C. This process can be used to recover zinc and iron as secondary raw materials.
Experiments to date in a batch reactor show that >99% of the zinc and lead can be removed from the treated material. However, a continuous process is necessary for an economical process, which is why this process is transferred to a rotary kiln and relevant process parameters are identified and optimized. The results of these investigations will be presented here.
One of the typical wastes produced in blast-furnace (BF) ironmaking is BF sludge, which mostly consists of carbon and iron oxides, but also contains toxic trace metals such as Zn, Pb, Cd, As, and Hg that render the material hazardous. Due to the lack of an established recycling process, BF sludges are landfilled, which is ecologically questionable and costly. Here, we investigate selective removal of Zn, Pb, and Cd from BF sludge by chlorination–evaporation reactions using thermodynamic modelling and laboratory-scale experiments. Specifically, BF sludge was thermochemically treated at 650–1000 °C with a spent iron(II) chloride solution from steel pickling and the effects of process temperature and retention time on removal of Zn, Pb, and Cd were investigated. Zinc and Pb were quantitatively removed from BF sludge thermochemically treated at 900–1000 °C, whereas Fe and C as well as other major elements were mostly retained. The Zn, Pb, and Cd contents in the thermochemically treated BF sludge could be lowered from ∼56 g/kg, ∼4 g/kg, and ∼0.02 g/kg to ≤0.7 g/kg, ≤0.02 g/kg, and ≤0.008 g/kg, respectively, thus rendering the processed mineral residue a non-hazardous raw material that may be re-utilized in the blast furnace or on the sinter band.
Jährlich entstehen in Brasilien ca. 2 bis 10 Millionen Tonnen Aschen aus der Verbrennung von Zuckerrohrbagasse. Die Aschen enthalten schwankende Zusammensetzungen an mineralischen Nährelementen und könnten daher zu Düngezwecken verwendet werden.
Allerdings ist (i) die Nährstoffverfügbarkeit gering, (ii), die entsprechende Nährstoffzusammensetzung nicht optimal für die Nutzung der Aschen als Düngemittel für die Hauptanbaukulturen in Brasilien und (iii) weisen die Aschen aufgrund häufig schlechter Verbrennungsqualitäten hohe organische Kohlenstoffgehalte auf. Im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts ASHES („Rückführung von Nährstoffen aus Aschen von thermochemischen Prozessen mit Bagasse bzw. Zuckerrohrstroh“), arbeiten 7 deutsche und 4 brasilianische Partner an der Optimierung der thermochemischen Verwertung von Rückständen aus der Zuckerproduktion in Brasilien, inklusive der Formulierung von optimierten Düngemischungen auf Basis der generierten Aschen. In dieser Veröffentlichung wird die Verarbeitung dieser optimierten Mischungen zu Pellets und Granulaten unter Verwendung verfügbarer regionaler Reststoffe wie Filterkuchen (Vinasse-Presskuchen) sowie Hühnertrockenkot beschrieben. Zur Untersuchung der Handlingeigenschaften wurden die produzierten Pellets und Granulate hinsichtlich ihrer mechanischen Stabilität und des Wasseraufnahmevermögens untersucht. Dafür wurden geeignete Prüfverfahren angepasst und entsprechende Versuche durchgeführt.
Da das Recycling von tantalhaltigen Post-Consumer-Abfällen praktisch nicht existiert, stellen metallurgische Reststoffe eine äußerst wichtige Rohstoffquelle für das Tantalrecycling dar. Die meisten Zinnerze enthalten von Natur aus erhebliche Mengen an Refraktärmetallen. Diese Elemente werden in den Schlacken der pyrometallurgischen Primärzinngewinnung angereichert. Aufgrund ihrer vergleichsweise hohen Wertstoffkonzentration und ihrer Funktion als zusätzlicher Schlackenbildner stellen diese Schlacken einen wertvollen Rohstoff für die Verhüttung tantalhaltiger Reststoffe dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein existierendes Verfahren zur Tantalrückgewinnung diskutiert, dem hauptsächlich pyrometallurgische Rückstände geringer Wertstoffkonzentration als Einsatzstoff dienen. Mit Hilfe des Verfahrens sollte dasoxidisch vorliegende Tantal vollständig reduziert und in der Metallphase angereichert werden. Weiterhin sollte vermieden werden, dass unerwünschte Elemente wie Titan in die Metallphase überführt werden. Ziel der Untersuchung war es, die ablaufenden Reduktionsprozesse besser zu verstehen, um so Ansätze für die Prozessoptimierung identifizieren zu können.
Weltweit werden etwa 80–85 % aller abgebauten Rohphosphate für die Produktion von Düngemitteln verwendet. Bei noch steigendem Bedarf an Phosphor (P) geht man derzeit davon aus, dass die weltweiten P-Reserven noch über 200 Jahre ausreichen. Um den P-Vorrat langfristig abzusichern, sollte der in Reststoffen enthaltene Phosphor möglichst umfänglich genutzt werden. Dieser Forderung trägt das von der Bundesregierung 2012 erstmals beschlossene Deutsche Ressourceneffizienzprogramm ProgRess Rechnung. Rohphosphat wird auch seitens der Europäischen Kommission aufgrundseiner ökonomischen Bedeutung und des unsicheren Angebots als „kritischer Rohstoff“ eingestuft. Vor diesem Hintergrund hat die Bundesregierung in der Verordnung zur Neuordnung der Klärschlammverwertung vom 27. September 2017 in Deutschland eine verpflichtende technische Rückgewinnung von Phosphor für Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen ab einer Ausbaugröße von 100.000 Einwohnerwerten (12 Jahre nach Inkrafttreten der Verordnung) bzw. ab einer Ausbaugröße von über 50.000 Einwohnerwerten (15 Jahre nach Inkrafttreten der Verordnung) vorgeschrieben. Die Verordnung enthält keine Vorgaben hinsichtlich der anzuwendenden Technologie bei der Phosphorrückgewinnung. Ausgenommen von der Rückgewinnungspflicht sind Klärschlämme mit niedrigen Phosphorgehalten (weniger als 20 Gramm Phosphor je Kilogramm Klärschlamm-Trockenmasse). Auch die im Jahre 2017 verabschiedeten neuen Rechtsvorschriften für die Düngung verlangen zukünftig einen nachhaltigen und ressourceneffizienten Umgang mit Nährstoffen bei der landwirtschaftlichen Erzeugung und schränken die P-Zufuhr insbesondere auf hoch versorgten Böden ein (Düngeverordnung vom 26. Mai 2017). Dies wird zu einem mehr am Pflanzenbedarf orientierten und ggf. vermehrt überbetrieblichen Einsatz von wirtschaftseigenen Düngern führen. Um den politischen und gesetzlichen Anforderungen gerecht zu werden, müssen einerseits wirksame und kosteneffiziente technische Verfahren zum P-Recycling (weiter)entwickelt werden. Andererseits müssen die Recyclingprodukte die Anforderungen für eine direkte Verwendung in der Landwirtschaft oder als Rohstoff für die Herstellung von Düngemitteln erfüllen. In dem vorliegenden Standpunkt wird zunächst der potenzielle Beitrag von Reststoffen zur Deckung des P-Bedarfs in der deutschen Pflanzenproduktion geschätzt. Für die wichtigsten Reststoffe werden technische Verfahren zur P-Rückgewinnung bzw. Aufarbeitung skizziert. Auf Basis der Anforderungen der Landwirtschaft bzw. der Düngemittelindustrie
an die P-Recyclingprodukte werden deren Herstellungsverfahren bewertet. Schließlich wird der Regelungs- und Forschungsbedarf formuliert.
The Weimar research project has set the goal of placing style-critical research on Old Master drawings on a new, methodologically proven foundation. The starting point is the stock of Dutch drawings possessed by the Klassik Stiftung Weimar, whose extent (ca. 1,400 items) and character make it one of the most significant outside the Netherlands. The focus here is on drawings that were executed with red chalk. This drawing material has different functions - one of which is the use as a transmission material. The methodological approach is double: first, the scientific indexing of this stock. The foundations for this, along with classic analysis of style, are innovative material-scientific methods of investigation.
Using nanofiber-like cell appendages, secreted proteins and sugars, bacteria can establish initial surface contact followed by irreversible adhesion and the formation of multicellular biofilms. Here, the stabilizing extracellular biofilm matrix together with physiological changes on the single cell level leads to an increased resilience towards harsh environmental conditions, antimicrobials, the host immune response and established cleaning procedures. Persistent microbial adhesion on e.g., medical implants, in water supply networks or food-processing industry is often associated with chronic inflammation, nosocomial and foodborne infections, enhanced biofouling and product contamination. To prevent persistent microbial colonization, antibacterial surface strategies often target the initial steps of biofilm formation and impede adhesion of single cells before a mature biofilm is being formed. While chemical coatings have been widely used, their restricted biocompatibility for eukaryotic cells and attenuated antibacterial-effects due to compound release limit their areas of application and alternative strategies focus on modified surfaces topographies to impede bacterial adhesion. In this work, we used ns-UV laser treatment (wavelength 248 nm and a pulse duration of 20 ns) to generate laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) with different submicrometric periods ranging from ~210 to ~610 nm on commercial poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) foils. Following structurally and chemically analyses, PET samples were subjected to bacterial colonization studies with Escherichia coli TG1, a bacterial test strain with a strong biofilm formation capacity due to the formation of nanofiber-like cell-appendages (pili). Bacterial adhesion tests revealed that E. coli repellence decisively depends on the spatial periods of the LIPSS with the strongest reduction (~91%) in cell adhesion observed for LIPSS periods of 214 nm. Scanning electron microscopy and additional biofilm studies using a pili-deficient E. coli TG1 strain revealed the importance of extracellular appendages in the bacterial repellence observed here, thus, pointing out new antibiotics-free strategies for antibacterial surfaces by impeding nanofiber-mediated bacterial adhesion.
The present work demonstrates a sustainable approach of using relatively coarser iron ore particles for ironmaking. The motivation is to reduce the energy consumption in the milling of the iron ore by utilizing coarser iron ore particles (+0.05 mm) and to select a suitable binder for improving pellet properties. Iron ore fines in the range of 0.05–0.25 mm was selected and classified into three size ranges. Fluxed iron ore pellets were prepared using lime as a binder for the basicity of 0, 1, and 2. Reduction of these pellets with a packed bed of coal fines was performed in the temperature range of 900–1200 °C for a duration of 30–120 min. The direct reduction kinetics of the iron ore pellets were studied by employing diffusion and chemical reaction control models to the experimental data. The results show that pellets made with coarser iron ore particles have improved reduction behavior and kinetics. The reduction reaction is found to be a mixed control. The activation energy for the reduction reaction varies from 44.3 to 74.76 kJ mol−1 as iron ore particle size decreases from 0.25 to 0.05 mm and basicity increases from 0 to 2.
The production of secondary materials from waste materials requires, in most cases, significantly lower energy amounts than the primary material production of raw materials. Along with lower energy demand, the greenhouse gas emissions produced are also lower. The duty of a modern waste management system should therefore be to collect and sort the waste materials in a way that the highest amounts of single material fractions with the highest qualities can be generated. In this contribution, the greenhouse gas balances of the theoretical treatment of the household waste, if collected as mixed waste in sanitary landfills, in waste incineration plants, or in mechanical-biological treatment plants, are compared to the existing separate waste collection and treatment in Germany in 2014.
Over the past two decades, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have emerged as worldwide environmental contaminants, calling out for sophisticated treatment, decomposition and remediation strategies. In order to mineralize PFAS pollutants, the incineration of contaminated material is a state-of-the-art process, but more cost-effective and sustainable technologies are inevitable for the future. Within this review, various methods for the reductive defluorination of PFASs were inspected. In addition to this, the role of mechanochemistry is highlighted with regard to its major potential in reductive defluorination reactions and degradation of pollutants. In order to get a comprehensive understanding of the involved reactions, their mechanistic pathways are pointed out. Comparisons between existing PFAS decomposition reactions and reductive approaches are discussed in detail, regarding their applicability in possible remediation processes. This article provides a solid overview of the most recent research methods and offers guidelines for future research directions.
Steelmaking slags are a by-product of steel production, that are currently used primarily in road construction, earthwork, and hydraulic engineering. In this use, the iron bound in the steelmaking slags (< 30 wt.%) is lost.
Recovery of iron from steelmaking slags is possible by thermochemical reductive treatment. The reductive treatment of liquid steelmaking slags causes iron oxides to be reduced to metallic iron, which separates from the mineral phase due to its higher density. The chemical composition of the mineral phase is thus adapted to that of the Portland cement clinker and the mineral alite, the most important component of Portland cement, is formed. This way, crude iron can be recovered, and at the same time a hydraulic binder can be produced.
This process, however, is uneconomical due to the high temperatures required (~1800 °C). In the current project, the process is to be adapted so that the reduction of liquid steelmaking slag can be carried out at ~1600 °C. The chemical composition is to be modified in such a way that the melting temperature of the slags as well as their viscosity are in a technically suitable range and still a product with good cementitious properties is obtained.
Release of substances from joint grouts based on various binder types and their ecotoxic effects
(2022)
Background: The leaching of substances and the ecotoxic effects of eluates were studied for joint grouts that are based on various types of binders. Eight products, two of them containing either epoxy resin, polybutadiene or polyurethane binders, or modifed cement, were investigated using harmonized leaching tests for construction products in combination with ecotoxicity tests on algae, daphnia, luminescent bacteria, fish eggs and mutagenicity in accordance with CEN/TR 17105. In addition to basic parameters, such as pH, TOC, and inorganic components, organic substances in the eluates were analysed by gas and liquid chromatography in combination with mass spectrometry. Quantitative analyses in combination with ecotoxicity data on selected substances were used to deduce which substances cause the observed ecotoxic effects.
Results: Different patterns of ecotoxic effects were observed in joint grouts with different binder types. The most ecotoxic effects were observed in epoxy resin-based products, followed by polybutadiene-based products. Fewer ecotoxic effects were observed in polyurethane-based products and modifed cements. Some of these showed no ecotoxicity. Some of the substances in the eluates were identified and related to ecotoxic effects. 4-Tert-butylphenol and amines probably contributed to the ecotoxic effects of at least one of the epoxy resin-based renders, whereas cobalt is assumed to contribute to the toxic effect on algae of one of the polybutadiene-based products. However, only some of the leached substances could be identifed, and only some of the ecotoxic effects can be explained by the available information on the composition of eluates and known ecotoxic profiles of the identified substances.
Conclusions: Ecotoxicity tests on eluates from leaching tests indicate whether environmentally hazardous substances can be leached from construction products. Combined ecotoxicity tests and chemical analysis of eluates from EU-wide harmonized leaching tests for construction products can provide information on substances that cause these effects. This supports the identifcation and development of environmentally friendly construction products.
This study confirmed that ecotoxicity tests in accordance with CEN/TR 17105 are a tool well-suited to support the implementation of the European Commission’s zero pollution vision for 2050 and to reduce pollution to levels no longer considered harmful to health and natural ecosystems.
The physical and chemical analysis of aerosols using reliable and physically traceable methods is important for the thorough investigation of airborne particles to support a better understanding of their origin as well as their health and climate impacts. Within the European Metrology Research AeroMet project,the aim of hysikalisch–Technische Bundesanstalt’s (PTB) X-ray spectrometry group is to develop and establish traceable and reliable X-ray methods to measure the elemental mass deposition per unit area, the elemental composition,and the chemical binding state of particulate matter supported by a flat substrate. This approach can substantially contribute to support quantitative analytical methods during on-site measurement campaigns where portable Instrumentation is employed by qualifying suitable calibration samples for commercial analytical X-ray instruments and by investigating samples collected during the field campaign.
The biogenesis of iron–sulfur (Fe/S) proteins entails the synthesis and trafficking of Fe/S clusters, followed by their insertion into target apoproteins. In eukaryotes, the multiple steps of biogenesis are accomplished by complex protein machineries in both mitochondria and cytosol. The underlying biochemical pathways have been elucidated over the past decades, yet the mechanisms of cytosolic [2Fe-2S] protein assembly have remained ill-defined. Similarly, the precise site of glutathione (GSH) requirement in cytosolic and nuclear Fe/S protein biogenesis is unclear, as is the molecular role of the GSH-dependent cytosolic monothiol glutaredoxins (cGrxs). Here, we investigated these questions in human and yeast cells by various in vivo approaches. [2Fe-2S] cluster assembly of cytosolic target apoproteins required the mitochondrial ISC machinery, the mitochondrial transporter Atm1/ABCB7 and GSH, yet occurred independently of both the CIA system and cGrxs. This mechanism was strikingly different from the ISC-, Atm1/ABCB7-, GSH-, and CIA-dependent assembly of cytosolic–nuclear [4Fe-4S] proteins. One notable exception to this cytosolic [2Fe-2S] protein maturation pathway defined here was yeast Apd1 which used the CIA system via binding to the CIA targeting complex through its C-terminal tryptophan. cGrxs, although attributed as [2Fe-2S] cluster chaperones or trafficking proteins, were not essential in vivo for delivering [2Fe-2S] clusters to either CIA components or target apoproteins. Finally, the most critical GSH requirement was assigned to Atm1-dependent export, i.e. a step before GSH-dependent cGrxs function. Our findings extend the general model of eukaryotic Fe/S protein biogenesis by adding the molecular requirements for cytosolic [2Fe-2S] protein maturation.
The steel industry is an important engine for sustainable growth, added value, and high-quality employment within the European Union. It is committed to reducing its CO2 emissions due to production by up to 50% by 2030 compared to 1990′s level by developing and upscaling the technologies required to contribute to European initiatives, such as the Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) and the European Green Deal (EGD). The Clean Steel Partnership (CSP, a public–private partnership), which is led by the European Steel Association (EUROFER) and the European Steel Technology Platform (ESTEP), defined technological CO2 mitigation pathways comprising carbon direct avoidance (CDA), smart carbon usage SCU), and a circular economy (CE). CE ap-proaches ensure competitiveness through increased resource efficiency and sustainability and consist of different issues, such as the valorization of steelmaking residues (dusts, slags, sludge) for internal recycling in the steelmaking process, enhanced steel recycling (scrap use), the use of secondary carbon carriers from non-steel sectors as a reducing agent and energy source in the steelmaking process chain, and CE business models (supply chain analyses). The current paper gives an overview of different technological CE approaches as obtained in a dedicated workshop called “Resi4Future—Residue valorization in iron and steel industry: sustainable solutions for a cleaner and more competitive future Europe” that was organized by ESTEP to focus on future challenges toward the final goal of industrial deployment.
Wood protection technology in the marine environment has changed over the last decades and will continue to do so. New active ingredients, newer formulations, and novel wood-based materials including physically- and chemically-modified wood, together with increasing concerns over environmental impacts of wood preservatives, urgently demand a major revision of EN 275 “Wood preservatives – Determination of the Protective Effectiveness against Marine Borers”, dated from 1992. This IRG document reports on the technical work in CEN TC 38 regarding the revision of this standard. A Task Group within WG 24 of CEN TC 38 was formed consisting of experts from different field of competence (e.g. wood preservatives industry, wood scientists, marine biologists, archaeologists and cultural heritage conservators). Starting by e-mail correspondence in 2014, and continuing with four physical meetings (Berlin 2x, Florence, Venice) with experts from Germany, Italy, Sweden, and UK were held so far. Significant items for revision in EN 275 were identified as: number of replicates, duration of the test, dimension of specimens, number of test sites, number of reference species, reference material including reference preservative, re-immersion of specimens after non-destructive periodical evaluation for longer periods of time vs higher number of replicates for successive destructive examinations without re-immersion, utilization of X- ray apparatus and specific software to ease evaluation, etc.
Furthermore, the task group is working on a standardized lab test for time-saving evaluation of different wood qualities for their potential to resist attack by limnorids. The suitability of this lab test will be determined by round robin tests as soon as safe face-to-face collaboration permits. The outcome will be published as a CEN TR (Technical Report) document, with a view to eventual adoption within the revised standard.
Biocides, including disinfectants and antimicrobial surfaces (AMCs), are important to prevent the spread of pathogens and antimicrobial resistant bacteria via surfaces. However, concerns have been raised about the evolution and selection of resistance against disinfectants and AMCs. In turn, resistance against disinfectants and AMCs can be associated to antibiotic resistance due to cross-resistance and co-resistance. We need to understand the mechanisms and risks of disinfectants and AMCs for resistance and cross-resistance evolution to optimize their application and safeguard their long-term efficacy. We used adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) experiments based on repeated exposure of bacteria to disinfectants. Our results show that repeated disinfection of E. coli with benzalkonium chloride in suspension results in a 2000-fold increase in survival within 5 exposure cycles. Adaption is linked to the initial presence of persister cells highly tolerant to benzalkonium chloride. We used the same approach to develop standardizable ALE experiments to determine resistance evolution to AMCs. The results highlight rapid adaptation of E. coli and P. aeruginosa towards copper surfaces. Moreover, there are multiple situations in the clinic or in the environment in which biocides and antibiotics co-occur and in which combination effects can shape their antimicrobial activity or their selective effects. Our work with P. aeruginosa shows prevalent combination effects of biocides and antibiotics, ranging from synergy to antagonism and resulting in the selection for or against antibiotic resistant strains. The combination effects are dependent on the biofilm mode-of-growth, manifesting in apparent differences in the structural arrangement of antibiotic sensitive and resistant strains in biofilms exposed to combinations. Furthermore, biocides affect rates of mutation and horizontal gene transfer, thereby having a potential facilitating effect on resistance evolution. Taken together, our work shows that the role of biocides as potential drivers of resistance evolution and selection deserves further study and regulative action.