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Paper des Monats
- ja (19)
A fundamental question in ecology is how biodiversity affects ecosystem function. Biodiversity is commonly estimated based on genetic variation. We investigated a new approach that defines and measures biodiversity in complex microbial communities. We used the variation in multiple functionally-relevant, phenotypic traits measured in parallel in single cells as a metric for microbial phenotypic diversity. We studied phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning throughout different photosynthetic layers dominated by divergent microbial communities in the gradient of Lago di Cadagno. We determined genetic diversity by 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing and bulk ecosystem functioning (photosynthesis). In addition, we determined phenotypic diversity using single-cell technologies such as nanometer-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) correlated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning flow-cytometry. We measured functional trait variation between individuals in 13CO2 fixation, 15NH4+ uptake, and variation in physio-morphological cell traits, such as cell size, shape, and auto-fluorescence for various pigments related to photosynthesis. We used the distances between individuals in a multidimensional trait space to derive phenotypic trait-based diversity indices, such as trait richness, trait evenness, and trait divergence. We find that phenotypic trait divergence associates with ecosystem functioning, whereas genetic diversity does not. Including activity-based, single-cell phenotypic measurements with NanoSIMS provided an additional accuracy to the trait-based diversity assessment and allowed us to formulate hypotheses on the mechanisms that shape the correlation between phenotypic diversity and eco-system function. Together, our results show that phenotypic diversity is a meaningful concept to measure microbial biodiversity and associate it with ecosystem functioning.
A fundamental question in ecology is how biodiversity affects ecosystem function. Biodiversity is commonly estimated based on genetic variation. We investigated a new approach that defines and measures biodiversity in complex microbial communities. We used the variation in multiple functionally-relevant, phenotypic traits measured in parallel in single cells as a metric for microbial phenotypic diversity. We studied phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning throughout different photosynthetic layers dominated by divergent microbial communities in the gradient of Lago di Cadagno. We determined genetic diversity by 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing and bulk ecosystem functioning (photosynthesis). In addition, we determined phenotypic diversity using single-cell technologies such as nanometer-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) correlated with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning flow-cytometry. We measured functional trait variation between individuals in 13CO2 fixation, 15NH4+ uptake, and variation in physio-morphological cell traits, such as cell size, shape, and auto-fluorescence for various pigments related to photosynthesis. We used the distances between individuals in a multidimensional trait space to derive phenotypic trait-based diversity indices, such as trait richness, trait evenness, and trait divergence. We find that phenotypic trait divergence associates with ecosystem functioning, whereas genetic diversity does not. Including activity-based, single-cell phenotypic measurements with NanoSIMS provided an additional accuracy to the trait-based diversity assessment and allowed us to formulate hypotheses on the mechanisms that shape the correlation between phenotypic diversity and eco-system function. Together, our results show that phenotypic diversity is a meaningful concept to measure microbial biodiversity and associate it with ecosystem functioning.
P recycling fertilizers are gaining increasing importance in our efforts to close nutrient cycles. An unsatisfactory performance of standard chemical extraction methods to assess the fertilizing effects of such products was reported. They demonstrated that DGT extractions of incubated soil/fertilizer mixtures were able to predict the fertilizing effects of the respective products more accurately. Since DGT works with soil/fertilizer mixtures, its interpretation is soil-dependent. Therefore, in order to facilitate its use as a tool to predict fertilizer performance, it needs to be standardized based on a standard substrate. This research aims to develop a standard substrate based on which evaluation categories for the DGT fertilizer extraction can be derived. The substrate composition should allow to vary the most important soil properties determining the plant availability of fertilizer P. It must also be reproducible at any time and any place. Substrate variants with varying proportions of quartz sand, a clay mineral and sphagnum peat were prepared and set to pH-levels 5.5 and 7 by addition of CaCO3. 7 variants were incubated with a set of test fertilizers (2 recycling fertilizers based on sewage sludge ash and 2 conventional mineral fertilizers) for 2 weeks. Substrate/fertilizer mixtures were then extracted with DGT and an ANOVA was performed to test if the DGT extraction was able to depict significant differences between fertilizers and substrate variants. An 8-week pot trial with ryegrass (3 cuts) was set up with the same substrate variants and test fertilizers. P uptake was determined to assess the fertilizing effect and correlated with the results of the DGT extractions. Statistically significant differences were found between DGT results for the various test fertilizers and substrate variants, indicating that DGT is able to differentiate between P solubility of fertilizers in relation to substrate quality. DGT results showed a strong relationship with P uptake, confirming that this method is suitable to predict the fertilizing effect of P fertilizers. Further optimization of substrate composition and tests with a wider variety of crops and fertilizer types are needed, before evaluation categories for DGT values can be derived.
Phosphorus (P) fertilizers from secondary resources became increasingly important in the last years. However, these novel P-fertilizer can also contain toxic pollutants e.g. chromium (Cr) in the hexavalent state (Cr(VI)), which is regulated with low limit values in agricultural products (German fertilizer ordinance limit: 2 mg/kg Cr(VI)). The determination of Cr(VI) in these novel fertilizer matrices can be hampered by redox processes that lead to false results with the standard wet chemical extraction method (German norm DIN EN 15192). Therefore, we analyzed Cr(VI) in various P-fertilizers with the DGT technique. DGT devices equipped with a APA (polyacrylamide) diffusion layer and Cr(VI) selective N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) binding layer were used for the study. After a 24 h conditioning period of the fertilizer at 60% of the water holding capacity (WHC), the fertilizers were brought to 100% WHC, transferred onto the DGT devices and deployed for 24 h at 25°C. The extraction of Cr from the DGT binding layer was carried out with 1 M HNO3 for 24 h. The Cr-concentrations of the extract were determined by means of ICP-MS. We found a good correlation between the standard wet chemical extraction and the DGT method for the whole range of P-fertilizers. However, partly soluble Cr(VI) compounds cannot be detected in full extent by the DGT method that is best suited for mobile Cr(VI). Furthermore, Cr K-edge XANES spectroscopy showed that the Cr(VI)-selective DGT binding layer also adsorbs mobile Cr(III) compounds from acid treatment of phosphates which can therefore cause an overestimation of Cr(VI). The DGT method was very sensitive and in most cases selective for the analysis of Cr(VI) in P-fertilizers made from recycled materials. However, the results of certain types of P-fertilizers containing mobile Cr(III) or partly immobile Cr(VI) show that still some optimization of the method is required to avoid over- or underestimation of Cr(VI).
Previous research shows that analytical methods based on Diffusive Gradients in Thin films (DGT) provide very good correlations to the amount of bioavailable nutrients and pollutants in the environmental samples. However, these DGT results do not identify which compound of the specific element has the high bioavailability. Using various spectroscopic techniques (infrared, XANES and NMR spectroscopy) to analyze the dried DGT binding layers after deployment could allow us to determine the specific elements or compounds. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen are often, together with other elements, present as molecules in the environment. These ions are detectable and distinguishable by infrared and NMR spectroscopy, respectively. In addition, XANES spectroscopy allows for the specification of nutrients and pollutants (e.g. chromium) on the DGT binding layer. Furthermore, microspectroscopic techniques make it also possible to analyze compounds on the DGT binding layer with a lateral resolution down to 5 µm2. Therefore, species of elements and compounds of e.g. a spatial soil segment can be mapped and analyzed, providing valuable insight to understand the dynamics of nutrients and pollutants in the environment. Here we will present the advantages and limitations of this novel combination of techniques.
Tricalcium-silicate (C3S) or Alite is the most important mineral in Portland cement. Since pure tricalcium-silicate is only stable above temperatures of 1250 °C, its decomposition has to be prevented technically by fast cooling after the sintering process. At room temperature, the decomposition velocity is very slow so that metastable tricalcium-silicate is obtained.
Although the mechanisms of clinker phase formation during burning process of Portland cement in a rotary kiln were solved and improved over the years, in view of possible economic and ecological benefits current projects aim to produce clinker phases from metallurgical slags. Recent studies discovered that the mineral phase which remained after a reducing treatment and separation of formed metallic iron from molten Linz-Donawitz (LD-) slags contained about 60 wt.% Alite despite it was cooled slowly. Because the results could be verified using slags from different origins and varying cooling velocities a chemical stabilisation of the Alite can be assumed. First tests in mortars indicate that workability, hardening and solid state properties are comparable with an ordinary Portland cement. An application of the observed phenomenon in cement production requires enhanced knowledge about formation and stabilisation conditions of Alite during crystallisation from melts in contrast to the sintering reactions in conventional Portland cement production. Therefore, this study focuses on the stabilisation mechanisms of Alite in consolidating melts. Samples from different melting experiments are analysed to determine stabilising factors.
Medieval stained-glass windows are protected by an outside gazing system in many churches.The interspace between the original and the protective glass is ventilated with air from the indoor or exterior environment, where dust and particles can move.Cascade impactor measurements and SEM/EDX analyses of sampled dust were carried to determine the dust composition. The effect of particles on model glass samples was investigated in climate chambers under accelerated weathering conditions. The results from in situ measurements and laboratory tests were combined to evaluate the potential effect of particulate matter on historic stained-glass Windows.
Rice is staple food of nearly half the world’s population. Rice yields must therefore increase to feed ever larger populations. By colonising rice and other plants, Herbaspirillum spp. stimulate plant growthand productivity. However the molecular factors involved are largely unknown. To further explore this interaction, the transcription profiles of Nipponbare rice roots inoculated with Herbaspirillum seropedicae were determined by RNA-seq. Mapping the 104 million reads against the Oryza sativa cv. Nipponbare genome produced 65 million unique mapped reads that represented 13,840 transcripts each with at least two-times coverage. About 7.4% (1,014) genes were differentially regulated and of these 255 changed expression levels more than two times. Several of the repressed genes encoded proteins related to plant defence (e.g. a putative probenazole inducible protein), plant disease resistance as well as enzymes involved in flavonoid and isoprenoid synthesis. Genes related to the synthesis and efflux of phytosiderophores (PS) and transport of PS-iron complexes were induced by the bacteria. These data suggest that the bacterium represses the rice defence system while concomitantly activating iron uptake. Transcripts of H. seropedicae were also detected amongst which transcripts of genes involved in nitrogen fixation, cell motility and cell wall synthesis were the most expressed.
Uninvited and Welcomed Guests in Museums – Biological management of
clothes moths and woodworms
(2019)
In museums and historic houses clothes, moths (Tineola bisselliella, Tinea pellionella) and the furniture beetle (Anobium punctatum) are the most economically important pests on textiles or wooden artifacts, respectively. Their management is essential to protect cultural ethnological heritage and natural history collections for future generations.
Pest management strategies have changed over time. Today, intensive knowledge on pest biology and overall material science are key cornerstones in IPM concepts - also for the museum environment. The important first steps for sustainable pest management are risk assessment, early pest detection and identification of pathways of infestation. These steps are followed by physical and biological means of control, which have lately gained more importance than applying biocides.
Several potentially effective biological enemies of clothes moths and woodworm have been known for a long time, but their promotion for pest control in museums and historic houses is just beginning.
This short review summarizes current concepts of pest life cycle interruption by applying good quarantine and very specific biological measures. The lessons learned from recent faunistic surveys, life-history studies as well as behavioral observations of parasitoids and predators of clothes moths and woodworm may supplement the pest management tool box. The need for further research in this field is addressed.
RNA virus populations are composed of highly diverse individuals that form a cloud of related sequences commonly referred to as a ‘quasispecies’1–3. This diversity arises as a consequence of low-fidelity genome replication4,5. By contrast, DNA Virus populations contain more uniform individuals with similar fitness6.
Genome diversity is often correlated with increased Fitness in RNA viruses, while DNA viruses are thought to require more faithful genome replication. During DNA replication, erroneously incorporated bases are removed by a 3′-5′ exonuclease, a highly conserved enzymatic function of replicative DNA but not RNA polymerases. This proofreading process enhances replication fidelity and ensures the genome integrity of DNA organisms, including large DNA viruses7. Here, we show that a herpesvirus can tolerate impaired exonucleolytic proofreading, resulting in DNA virus populations, which, as in RNA viruses8, are composed of highly diverse genotypes of variable individual fitness. This indicates that herpesvirus mutant diversity may compensate for individual Fitness loss. Notably, in vivo infection with diverse virus populations results in a marked increase in virulence compared to genetically homogenous parental virus. While we cannot exclude that the increase in virulence is caused by selection of and/or interactions between individual genotypes, our findings are consistent with quasispecies dynamics. Our results contrast with traditional views of DNA virus replication and evolution, and indicate that a substantial increase in population diversity can lead to higher virulence.
Uranium and thorium species in phosphate rock and sewage sludge ash based phosphorus fertilizers
(2020)
Phosphorus (P) is an essential element for all forms of life and is thus often applied as phosphate rock-based P-fertilizers in agriculture to enable continuous farming. However, these P-fertilizers contain also hazardous uranium (U) and thorium (Th), up to 660 and 220 mg/kg, respectively. On the contrary, novel P-fertilizers made from sewage sludge (ash) contain only low mass fractions of U and Th. In addition to the total amount of U and Th in P-fertilizers, their mobility and bioavailability is important, which depends to a large extent on their chemical state, especially oxidation state and chemical bonding. Thus, we analyzed their chemical state in various P-fertilizers by U and Th L3-edge HERFD-XANES spectroscopy. Phosphate rocks and sewage sludge-based P-fertilizers contain mainly U(IV) compounds which have only a low bioavailability. In contrast, acidic treatment of phosphate rock to produce super phosphates lead to an oxidation to U(VI) compounds (including formation of uranium phosphates) with a strongly increased bioavailability. On the contrary, all analyzed P-fertilizers contain Th in form of strongly insoluble phosphates and oxides with a low bioavailability. Additionally performed water extractions and Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films (DGT) experiments support these findings.
Today glass is broadly used in modern architecture. For indoor applications it is possible to produce decorated glass by using enamel colours and glass painting techniques without any problems. However, this is more limited for applications out of doors. Humidity and environmental pollution attack the surface of the coating and can damage it. There are only a few colours on the market which are resistant towards acids and bases until now. Additionally, most of those colours are opaque. To extend the colour palette, chemically resistant low melting coloured glasses are being developed which are transparent and intensively toned even in thin coating thicknesses. To achieve such an ambitious aim, many parameters have to combine and act in a complex manner. New compositions of lead borosilicate, zinc borosilicate and lead-zinc borosilicate glasses were produced and milled as powder. The thermal properties as well as the environmental stability were analysed. The influence of PbO and ZnO on the thermal properties and the environmental stability were investigated. Evaluation of the fusing results shows that the production and mixture of transparent vitreous enamels for the exterior side of glasses is possible. The tests made it clear that the original materials for making the vitreous enamels must be excellently ground and prepared to achieve a satisfactory result. The method to produce durable vitreous enamels for exterior application also seems to allow the production of glass colours.
Free-living and (ecto)-mycorrhizal fungi enhance rock weathering. In their roles as mineral weathering agents and mutualistic partners of phototrophs, fungi supply primary producers like plants and phototrophic microorganisms with mineral-derived nutrients. The exact mechanisms behind fungus-induced mineral weathering processes are however not well understood. Progress can be achieved here by reproducible experimental simulations of the natural processes, using well-characterised model organisms and minerals.
In this study, the weathering-affecting, rock-inhabiting fungus, Knufia petricola A95 and the Fe-bearing olivine (Fe0.2Mg1.8SiO4) were selected to investigate fungi-induced effects on mineral dissolution. The availability of a melanin-deficient mutant (ΔKppks) of K. petricola A95, that produced more extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) than the wild type (WT), enabled comparative studies of the role of melanin and EPS in weathering processes.
Three experimental systems, which generate long-term microbiological stability, were developed to study the impact of the WT and ΔKppks on olivine weathering: (1) batch and (2) mixed flow dissolution experiments, and (3) biofilm cultivation experiments. In addition, state-of-the-art analytical techniques were used to monitor changes in the growth medium, as well as of the mineral surface and biofilm-mineral interface.
Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis of the Mg, Si and Fe concentrations in the reacted growth medium was used to quantify olivine dissolution. In abiotic controls, Mg and Si dissolved congruently, while Fe precipitated. The measured olivine dissolution rates at pH 6 were two orders of magnitude lower than previously reported, but similar at acidic pH. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses of the olivine surface confirmed the presence of Fe (oxyhydr)oxide precipitates. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging of an abiotically reacted polished olivine section from the long-term cultivation experiment showed the presence of an amorphous layer enriched in Fe. All these observations indicate that the precipitation of Fe (oxyhydr)oxides on the olivine surface inhibits olivine dissolution.
Both tested rock-inhabiting fungal strains affect Fe precipitation as well as olivine dissolution. Evaluation of the WT and ΔKppks revealed that the WT formed less biomass but could take up higher amounts of metals (e.g. Fe) and was more efficient in its attachment to olivine. The WT and ΔKppks enhanced olivine dissolution as demonstrated by higher Mg and Si concentration in the reacted growth medium. They furthermore prevented Fe precipitation by binding Fe and retaining it in solution, thereby allowing olivine dissolution to proceed. The WT cells that were attached to the olivine surface were particularly efficient at inhibiting Fe precipitation. By binding Fe directly at the olivine surface, the WT cells removed the inhibition of olivine dissolution almost completely. TEM analysis of polished olivine sections, colonised by a fungal biofilm for seven months, supported this hypothesis. After long-term fungus-olivine interaction, the Fe-enriched, amorphous layer did not develop, and the olivine surface was stronger etched compared to the abiotic control.
To study the effect of mutualism on mineral weathering, K. petricola was grown with the cyanobacterium, Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133. Both partners showed an enhanced growth and formed a stratified biofilm which attached more strongly to olivine. Nevertheless, the olivine dissolution rate of the fungus-cyanobacterium consortium was moderate.
Rock weathering simulation systems developed here are promising research instruments. The experimental conditions allow for the alteration of the studied mineral surface, while the clear definition of these conditions delivers a stable growth of microorganisms. The latter makes these systems universally applicable, especially in combination with integrative multidisciplinary analytics. Processes underlying environmental and biological effects on rock weathering, metal corrosion, plastic degradation, or the deterioration of any other substrate can be studied reproducibly and over a long period of time. The chemical and biological complexity of these simulation systems mimics natural rock weathering processes. The mineral dissolution rates generated in this study are therefore relevant to natural ecosystems.
Mechanisms of olivine dissolution by rock-inhabiting fungi explored using magnesium stable isotopes
(2019)
To unravel the dissolution mechanisms of olivine by a rock-inhabiting fungus we determined the stable isotope ratios of Mg on solutions released in a laboratory experiment. We found that in the presence of the fungus Knufia petricola the olivine dissolution rates were about seven-fold higher (1.04×10−15 mol cm−2 s−1) than those in the abiotic experiments (1.43×10−16 mol cm−2 s−1) conducted under the same experimental condition (pH 6, 25 °C, 94 days). Measured element concentrations and Mg isotope ratios in the supernatant solutions in both the biotic and the abiotic experiment followed a dissolution trend in the initial phase of the experiment, characterized by non-stoichiometric release of Mg and Si and preferential release of 24Mg over 26Mg. In a later phase, the data indicates stoichiometric release of Mg and Si, as well as isotopically congruent Mg release. We Attribute the initial non-stoichiometric phase to the rapid replacement of Mg2+ in the olivine with H+ along with simultaneous polymerization of Si tetrahedra, resulting in high dissolution rates, and the stoichiometric phase to be influenced by the accumulation of a Si-rich amorphous layer that slowed olivine dissolution. We attribute the accelerated dissolution of olivine during the biotic experiment to physical attachment of K. petricola to the Si-richamorphous layer of olivine which potentially results in ist direct exposure to protons released by the fungal cells. These additional protons can diffuse through the Si-rich amorphous layer into the crystalline olivine. Our results also indicate the ability of K. petricola to dissolve Fe precipitates in the Si-rich amorphous layer either by protonation, or by Fe(III) chelation with siderophores. Such dissolution of Fe precipitates increases the porosity of the Si-rich amorphous layer and hence enhances olivine dissolution. The acceleration of mineral dissolution in the presence of a rock-dissolving fungus further suggests that its presence in surficial CO2 sequestration plants may aid to accelerate CO2 binding.
Since it was realized that sites contaminated with metals and radionuclides needed treatment, various remediation methods have been and are being developed. Depending on the size of the contaminated site and urgency of intervention, conventional or recently introduced techniques have been used. Conventional techniques include excavation and removal for treatment of soil and contaminants, or the so-called “pump-and-treat” method, in which contaminated groundwater is removed from the ground by pumping and treated in a treatment plant on the surface. It has the advantage of using proven techniques and is easy to control, and the treated groundwater can be reinjected into the ground or discharged in rivers or lakes. Novel methods include permeable reactive barriers, biomineralization, and electrokinetic remediation.
Menschen, die in der gemäßigten Klimazone leben, verbringen bis zu 90% ihres Lebens in Innenräumen. Deshalb hat das Innenraumklima eine sehr große Bedeutung für deren Wohlergehen, Gesundheit und Leistungsfähigkeit. In Deutschland wird ca. 40% der eingesetzten Primärenergie für das Heizen, Kühlen und Klimatisieren der Innenräume verwendet.
Das Forschungsvorhaben hat eine Laufzeit vom Oktober 2013 bis März 2017. Es wird in Kooperation mit der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) und der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW Berlin) durchgeführt. Die HTW Berlin koordiniert das Projekt. Die Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH) wird teilweise über einen Auftrag in das Projekt integriert.
Ziel des Projektes ist es Baustoffe auf ihre Geruchsemissionen zu untersuchen, um Bauprodukte mit niedrigen Emissionen und Gerüchen identifizieren zu können. Den Verbraucherinnen und Verbrauchern wird somit die Möglichkeit gegeben emissions- und geruchsarme Baustoffe zu wählen.
Die Aufgabenstellung des Projektes ist nachfolgend aufgeführt:
Arbeitspaket 1: Geruchsmessung bei Produkten mit dem Blauen Engel (siehe Kapitel 4 und 5);
Arbeitspaket 2: Untersuchung von Vergleichsmaßstäben (siehe Kapitel 6);
Arbeitspaket 3: Untersuchung der Linearität der Acetonskala (siehe Kapitel 7);
Arbeitspaket 4: Erstellung einer Produktdatenbank (siehe Kapitel 8).
Die Geruchsuntersuchung ist in den Vergabekriterien für den „Blauen Engel“ für textile Bodenbeläge (RAL UZ-128) eingebunden worden. Aus den weiteren Untersuchungen sind für die Normung wichtige Erkenntnisse erarbeitet worden.
Textile floor coverings are often used in offices and residential buildings. Large areas like meeting rooms, cinemas, theaters and hotels are often equipped with such coverings. They contribute to the comfort of the users as they provide high pedaling comfort and sound absorption. The weakness of these building materials is due to the odor emission that is released from the floor covering, which affects the comfort of the users. A bad air quality and the resulting dissatisfaction can lead to lower employee productivity. The research project of the Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW-Berlin) is promoted by the German Environment Agency (UBA). The project has the following title: Low-emission and low-odor building products for energy-efficient buildings - Development of requirements and concepts for the Blue Angel from a climate protection perspective; investigates the emission and odor behavior of textile floor coverings (Emissions- und geruchsarme Bauprodukte für energieeffiziente Gebäude - Entwicklung von Anforderungen und Konzepten für den Blauen Engel aus Klimaschutzsicht; untersucht das Emissions- und Geruchsverhalten textiler Bodenbeläge).
Phosphorus (P) is an essential element for all life forms, and P-availability thus an important driver of a functioning agriculture. However, phosphate rock resources for P-fertilizer production are only available in a few countries. Therefore, P-recovery from waste materials has become of increasing interest during the last decade and has been investigated worldwide. In order to characterize potential novel P-fertilizers made from recycled materials, a large array of P-compound characterizations, chemical extractions and growth experiments were performed. This review bundles the work carried out in that field over the last years. Overall, P-fertilizers from recycled materials show a broad range of P-compounds with very different chemical structure and solubility. Growth experiments performed to assess their fertilizing effects display high variations for most of the products. While these experiments have demonstrated that some fertilizers made of recycled materials may reach P effects in the same order of magnitude as water-soluble phosphate rock-based fertilizers, an important limitation in their interpretation is the fact that they often vary considerably in their experimental design. The existing data show clearly that standardization of growth experiments is urgently needed to achieve comparable results. Standard chemical extractants used to assess the chemical solubility of P-fertilizers were found to be of limited reliability for predicting plant P uptake. Therefore, alternative methods such as sequential fractionation, or the extraction of incubated soil/fertilizer mixtures with standard soil extractants or with P sink methods should be tested more intensively in the future to provide alternative options to predict the P-availability of fertilizers from recycled materials.
The compatible solute ectoine is a versatile protectant synthesized by many prokaryotes. It is used as an osmolyte helping microorganisms to maintain an osmotic equilibrium. In addition, ectoine acts as a stabilizer and protects proteins, membranes and whole cells against detrimental effects such as freezing and thawing, drying and high temperatures. Its protective effect is explained by the preferential exclusion model, which postulates that ectoine does not directly interact with biomolecules but is excluded from their surface. Interestingly, details on the interaction of ectoine with DNA are still unknown. Therefore, we studied the influence of ectoine on DNA and the mechanisms by which ectoine protects DNA against ionizing radiation. To emulate biological conditions, we used a sample holder comprising a silicon chip with a Si3N4 membrane, which allows for electron irradiation of DNA in aqueous solution. Analysis by atomic force microscopy revealed that without ectoine, DNA was damaged by irradiation with a dose of 1,7 +/-0,3 Gy. With ectoine, DNA remained undamaged, even after irradiation with 15 Gy. Simulations with dsDNA and ectoine in water revealed a preferential binding of the zwitterionic ectoine to the negatively charged DNA. According to the simulations, binding of ectoine will destabilize dsDNA. Destabilizing is probably caused by the transition of B-DNA to A-DNA and will reduce the DNA melting temperature, which was experimentally proven. The preferential binding provides a stable ectoine shell around DNA, which allows ectoine to reduce OH-radicals and electrons near the DNA and thereby mitigating the damaging effect of ionizing radiation.