Throughout human history, wood has been used for various purposes: for
building shelters, houses and bridges, for manufacturing furniture and
household or agricultural appliances (from ploughs to spoons), as burning
material or simply as walking sticks. Contemporarily, vast amounts of wood
are going into paper production. As a consequence, different qualities of
wood are selected appropriately for the various applications. Beams incorporated
into buildings and constructions have to be sturdy and durable;
boards for furniture are supposed to be free of knots or are expected to have
certain ornamental structures. As long as wood is not simply destined for
burning it should be free of undesired knots or internal damages such as rot
or worm holes. Particularly in cases of infestation with wood destroying
fungi that definitely impairs mechanical strength and even may generate
hollows such damages are frequently invisible from the outside. Radiographic
methods are capable to detect internal damages as well as hidden
knots without the need of drilling holes or cutting a specimen to pieces.
The most thoroughly method to visualise the interior of a wooden specimen
is tomography which shows annual growth rings in their complete circumference
and all the knots or damages that might be included. However, some
of them as well as patterns of annual rings suitable for dendrological investigations
are recognisable with a less laborious method that might be applicable
even in the field, i.e. contemporary digital radiography combined with
image processing. Samples of lumber shall be presented showing the typical
annual ring structures and some infested areas.
Different girth welds of tube sections have been inspected by elliptical projection technique
according to the EN 1435. The radiographic images were taken by using both film
radiography and computed radiography. The purpose of this study was to compare a C3
(AGFA D4) film system and a Duerr HDCR 35 NDT / HR IP imaging plate system with
respect to the exposure time, image quality and the detection of fine weld imperfections. The
results indicate to a dominant influence of the lead screens on the image contrast sensitivity if
doing the inspection according to the EN 14748 -2 for imaging plate exposures. New screen
combinations had been applied to make a computed radiograph of a testing class B quality
possible.
Computed Radiography exposure experiments on welded plate sections
were performed to demonstrate that the requirements for pressure vessels weld
inspection according to EN1435 or EN14784-2 class B can be achieved. The
representative comparative studies of the image qualities were performed with
standardized image quality indicators and image evaluation procedures on both film
and digital radiographs. Recommendations for weld inspections with CR systems
are drawn from the results. It is demonstrated that present CR systems can be used
for weld inspection and produce images with testing class B if the selected X-ray
tube voltage is reduced compared with the max. voltage of EN 14784-2 and set
equivalent to maximum X-ray voltage values for steel as defined in the radioscopic
standard EN 13068-3. The work was part of the European 'Filmfree' Project
promoted during the 6th framework.
This paper presents a new X-ray backscatter technique (XBT) for non-destructive imaging of aerospace materials with only a single-sided access. It uses a special twisted slit collimator to inspect the whole object by changing the viewing direction of the X-ray backscatter camera. For the first time, the X-ray backscatter measurements were conducted using high-energy (>500 keV) X-ray sources. Experiments were performed on thick complex structured aluminium components, stringers and honeycomb structures to validate the applicability of the present technique to image small changes in the material properties and also to detect low-density material inclusions. In order to reduce the inspection time from hours to several seconds and to improve the image quality of the X-ray backscatter image, the backscattered signals were measured using a digital detector array with high spatial resolution (200 µm). The influence of the energy of the X-ray source and the slit width of the camera on the X-ray backscatter image were also investigated. In the proposed technique, the whole object is irradiated by an un-collimated X-ray beam resulting in a low image acquisition time of 3 min that facilitates the use of XBT for the real time NDT&E of aerospace materials.
This work presents an investigation of the accuracy of a radiographic simulation model applied to subsea pipeline inspections. Experimental measurements of a sample in a water tank are used to develop a set of calibrated simulation parameters for the modelling software aRTist. Image quality parameters such as signal-tonoise ratio, contrast and basic spatial resolution are compared with the aim of matching simulated values to experimental results. With this method signal-to-noise ratio was successfully matched while differences were still found in contrast-to-noise ratio comparisons. This means that measurements depending on absolute intensity are not accurate enough, however wall thickness measurements in tangential images, which are not based on absolute intensity, were found to produce similar results in simulated and experimental cases. The differences in contrast and intensity are thought to be due to detector backscatter and additional scatter from out-of-setup objects within the exposure bay, due to a lack of source collimation. These would affect the experimental results but were not included in the simulated setup. This was investigated by including different proportions of peripheral water and other objects in the modelled setup and examining the effect on Image quality parameters. Results show that this additional scatter has a significant impact on the radiograph, particularly on image contrast, and is therefore the likely cause of differences between experimental and simulated images. This implies that it will be very difficult to completely match simulated to experimental results, as including all possible scattering objects in the model would be very complex. An improvement could be made by using real subsea data to estimate this additional scattering, which could then be used to calibrate the model. However there would still be significant uncertainty in the ability of the model to accurately produce realistic intensity and contrast.
Classical film radiography is a well-established NDT technique and it is most commonly used for testing weld seams and corroded pipes e.g. in oil and gas industry or in nuclear power plants. In the course of digitization, digital detector arrays (DDA) are finding their way into industrial applications and are replacing film radiography step by step. This study deals with the latest generation of DDAs, the photon counting and energy resolving detectors (PCD), and their characteristics compared to charge integrating detectors (CID). No matter which technology to use, radiography still lacks a general issue: A three-dimensional object is projected onto a two dimensional image. Of course, advanced computed tomography (CT) algorithms exist since many years, but if the object to investigate is too large to fit into the manipulation system or its shape is not appropriate, CT is not feasible or sensible to be applied. To overcome this limitation, numerous laminographic algorithms have been developed in the past. In this study, photon counting detectors are used in combination with co-planar translational laminography to gain reconstructed three-dimensional volumes. Both laminographic testing and PCDs require a serious knowledge of many parameters that can influence the image quality in the resulting datasets. These are e.g. the detector efficiency and calibration procedure, setting of energy thresholds, exposure data, number of projections, beam length correction and spatial resolution. The use of PCDs yields more variables to be considered compared to CIDs. The most important parameters in laminographic testing and in the use of PCDs are described in this study and limits are discussed.
Speicherfoliensysteme werden seit den 80-iger Jahren in der Röntgendiagnostik
eingesetzt. Die technische Modifizierung der anfänglich im medizinischen Bereich
genutzten Speicherfoliensysteme ermöglichte die Einführung der Computer-Radiographie
(CR) in die Digitale Industrielle Röntgenprüfung mit dem Ziel des Filmersatzes. Die Speicherfolien
detektieren im Vergleich zum Röntgenfilm einen wesentlich größeren
Dosisbereich. Die daraus resultierende Dynamik befähigt die Speicherfoliensysteme zur
Abbildung eines großen Objektumfanges und verringert zugleich das Risiko einer Fehlbelichtung.
Vor allem die Möglichkeit, unmittelbar nach dem Belichten das virtuell im Speicherleuchtstoff
gespeicherte Durchstrahlungsbild auszulesen, in digitalisierter Form im PC
zu speichern und auf dem Bildschirm betrachten zu können, verdeutlicht die Vorteile von
CR Systemen beim Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung. Eine vollständige Ablösung
des Röntgenfilmes durch digitale Techniken ist jedoch erst dann zu erwarten, wenn es gelingt,
eine Bildqualität zu erreichen, die besser oder gleichwertig zu der vom jeweiligen
Röntgenfilmsystem geforderten ist. Mit diesem Ziel hat in den letzten Jahren eine technische
Weiterentwicklung von CR Systemen für den industriellen Einsatz stattgefunden. Im
gleichen Zeitraum wurden mehrere Standards zur Bewertung von CR Systemen und zu
deren richtigen Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung entwickelt.
Heutzutage ist die Herstellung von Durchstrahlungsbildern mit einer entsprechend gewünschten
Bildgüte sichergestellt, was in den letzten Jahren zum verstärkten Einsatz von
CR Systemen in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung führte.
Im Rahmen einer von der EU finanzierten Studie (Filmfree) wurden anfänglich systematische
Untersuchungen zu den Einsatzmöglichkeiten und grenzen von CR Systemen für die
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnähten in Schienen durchgeführt.
Anhand der Ergebnisse ließen sich optimale Bedingungen und Strategien für die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schienen ableiten, die anschließend im vor Ort Einsatz auf der
Teststrecke der Deutschen Bahn verifiziert wurden.
Im vorgestellten Beitrag werden die Vorteile des Einsatzes von CR Systemen bei der
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnahtverbindungen dargestellt
und deren Verwendung unter realen Verkehrsbedingungen im Schienenverkehr beschrieben.
Es wird gezeigt, wie unter den bestehenden Fahrbetriebsbedingungen die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schweißungen in verlegten Schienen umgesetzt werden kann.
The new standard ISO 176362:2013 'NDT of welds: Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma ray techniques with digital detectors' describes a complex procedure for film replacement by phosphor imaging plates and digital detector arrays. RT modeling software should consider these detector types, X-ray film, and the standard requirements for image quality. Practitioners expect the same visibility of image quality indicators (IQI) in the simulated radiographs as in the experimental exposures. The proposed benchmark test is based on the comparison of experimental radiographs taken at BAM with modeled ones of participants. The experimental setup and the determination of the equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (EPS) as described in the procedure of ASTM E 746 are used for quantitative evaluation of the achievable contrast sensitivity for step hole IQIs as considered in Annex B of ISO 17636-2. System classification data for Computed Radiography (CR) and film systems will be provided by BAM according to ISO 116991 for selected film systems and according to ASTM E 2446 for selected CR systems. The classification of films and digital detectors is based on the measurement of the dose response function, the basic spatial resolution (SRb) of the image, and the measured image noise, which depends on the detector efficiency, the quantum statistics, and the detector fixed pattern noise.
In this contribution, we present a dual high-energy X-ray imaging technique for cargo container inspection using the 'spectral high-energy X-ray attenuation method'. This method is based on attenuation of continuous highenergy spectra. The developed experimental technique consists of a betatron as high-energy (up to 7.5 MeV) X-ray source and a matrix detector with high spatial resolution (400 ìm) for digital X-ray imaging. In order to evaluate the material discrimination capability using dual high-energy X-ray imaging, a test specimen is proposed, comprising step wedges of different low and high atomic number (Z) materials. The selected X-ray spectra for the dual-energy experiments correspond to 3 MV and 7.5 MV acceleration potential of the betatron. We evaluated the ratio between low- and high-energy X-ray attenuation coefficients quantitatively based on simulated poly-energetic high-energy X-ray source spectra and the detector sensitivity using the 'analytical Radiographic Testing inspection simulation tool' (aRTist) developed at BAM. The simulated effective attenuation coefficients are compared with corresponding experimental results in order to establish a method for identification of low- and high-Z materials in the container. Finally, important applications of the proposed technique in the context of aviation security are discussed.