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The increased application of higher-strength steels and filler materials necessitates more profound understanding of the interaction between the welding process, the heat input, the cooling conditions and the resulting metallurgical processes in the weld and its surroundings. Strategies which help to improve the strength properties and life-time of welded structures to such an extent that the utilisation of higher-strength materials can be justified and their lightweight construction potential can thus be exploited to the full can only be derived from the interaction between all the influencing factors. Examples of a few investigations on welded joints between higher-strength fine-grained structural steels with regard to the interactions between the main variables influencing the cold cracking are presented in this article.
Residual stresses are often the cause for cracks in weld constructions. That is why the residual stress level, induced by manufacturing process, plays a crucial role. The present study aims on the effect of multiple repair weld procedures on a high-strength structural steel S690QL. The widespread technology of carbon arc-air gouging was applied. The weld zone and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) were subjected to multiple thermal cycles by gouging and subsequent repair welding. The investigations were focused on the change of the residuals stresses, the impact on the microstructure and the changes for the mechanical properties of the repair welded joint. The residual stresses were determined by X-ray diffraction. The results have shown a significant dependence for the residual stress levels from the repair cycle. In addition, distinctive changes in microstructures and hence mechanical properties occurred. The fusion line of the repair weld and the adjacent HAZ are the most critical areas. This is where the loss of ductility is most pronounced.
The application of high-strength fine-grained structural steels with yield stress ≥ 690 MPa permits significant weight reductions and cost savings. Since welding is the major joining technology, e.g. in mobile crane industry, the sustainable and economical application of these grades depends on the load-bearing capacity and safety of the welds. An economical processing of high-strength steels is determined above all by the avoidance of cold cracking, apart from achieving demand-oriented mechanical properlies in the weid area. High tensile residual stresses are disadvantageaus regarding the cold cracking resistance and strength of welded components. Furthermore, high restraints commonly appearing in component welds increase residual stresses. Hence, in this research the influences of heat control on residual stresses and the overall structural Ioad of welded structures were quantified. The relationship between the weid thermal cycle and the resulting residual stress under additional shrinkage restraint was analysed by a successive augmentation of the restraint intensity. This was achieved by systematic low Ioad and component weid tests. lt was observed that the heat control significantly affects the local residual stresses and the overall structural Ioad of welded structures. A high interpass temperature increases the global and local welding stresses in particular. Moreover, the transferability of experimental welding results obtained from small specimens according to applicable codes to real component geometries was investigated. With the help of these findings it is possible to improve existing heat control concepts for high-strength steel welding.
For the performance of high-strength steel welds by means of load bearing capacity and safety, the information about stress level and distribution due to welding is needed. The interaction between the filler material grade (strength) and heat input on the reaction stresses in high-strength steels, welded under defined restraint conditions were analysed. Butt welds were joined by a multilayer GMAW process in the Instrumented Restraint Cracking test facility (IRC-test). This test facility allowed a defined restraint and, simultaneously, an in-situ analysis of the reaction stresses while welding and cooling. The reaction force build-up of the weld tests showed a significant influence of the used filler materials according to the heat input. Higher strength filler material grades cause a decrease of the welding stresses compared to lower strength grades, if a low heat input is used. The different stress build-up is described in detail for the root welds, filler layers and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature. Residual stresses in the weld, HAZ and base material were measured in loaded and unloaded condition using the incremental hole drilling method.
Bei Schweißkonstruktionen aus modernen Feinkornbaustählen, wie sie beispielsweise im Hochbau, im Anlagenbau und im Kranbau vorkommen, sind aus folgenden Gründen enge Verfahrensgrenzen für die Wärmeführung zu beachten: das spezielle Gefüge und das vergleichsweise hohe Streckgrenzenverhältnis bzw. die geringen plastischen Verformungsreserven. Zum Einstellen der Gefügeeigenschaften sind mit Hilfe von Vorwärm- bzw. Zwischenlagentemperaturen und Streckenenergien die Abkühlzeiten Δt8/5 möglichst exakt einzuhalten Wie beispielsweise in DIN 1011-2 und SEW 088 nachzulesen ist, basieren Prüfverfahren und empirische Ansätze zum Abschätzen von Schweißwärmezyklen auf dem Kohlenstoffäquivalent. Über die bisherigen Laboruntersuchungen zur Entstehung von Eigenspannungen im unmittelbaren Schweißbereich hinaus muss der Einfluss der Wärmeführung im Zusammenhang mit den Steifigkeitsverhältnissen umgebender Montageteile analysiert werden. Numerische und experimentelle Untersuchungen haben z.B. ergeben, dass eine äußere Schrumpfbehinderung in Nahtquerrichtung durch den Einspanngrad RFy bemessen werden kann. Im Rahmen des Fosta-Forschungsprojekts P 922 wurden Versuchsschweißungen im Stumpfstoß mit V-Naht an den Werkstoffen S690QL, S960QL, S700MC und S960MC mit 8 mm und 20 mm Blechdicke und typischen Schweißparametern aus dem Kranbau durchgeführt. Für S690QL mit 20 mm Blechdicke sind die Ergebnisse wie folgt dargestellt: a) Abkühlzeit in Abhängigkeit von Zwischenlagentemperatur und Streckenenergie, b) mikroskopische Aufnahme des Schweißguts und der Wärmeeinflusszone und c) des Schweißgutgefüges (Abkühlzeit Δt8/5=13 s). Mit einer hydraulischen 2-MN-Prüfanlage wurden Schrumpfbehinderung und gleichzeitig Reaktionskräfte gemessen, während des Vorwärmens, des Schweißens und des Abkühlens. Das Ergebnis zeigt, dass die resultierenden mechanischen Beanspruchungen der gesamten Schweißverbindung erheblich von der Höhe der Schrumpfbehinderung und der Wärmeabführung während des Schweißens abhängig sind.
Aktuelle Bestrebungen zum Leichtbau sowie zur Erhöhung der Energie- und Ressourceneffizienz führen zum steigenden Einsatz hochfester Feinkornbaustähle in einer deutlich wachsenden Anzahl von Branchen. Mit zunehmender Festigkeit steigt die Herausforderung an die schweißtechnische Verarbeitung und Bemessung der Konstruktion infolge engerer Verfahrensgrenzen und hoher Streckgrenzenverhältnisse [1]. Moderne modifizierte Sprühlichtbogenprozesse gestatten neben den bekannten wirtschaftlichen Vorteilen gerade im Zusammenhang mit der veränderten Nahtgeometrie, dem reduzierten Schweißnahtvolumen sowie Gesamtwärmeeintrag deutlich geringere schweißbedingte Beanspruchungen. Dadurch erhöht sich die Beanspruchbarkeit hochfester Schweißkonstruktionen. in den Untersuchungen wurde der Einfluss von Schweißprozess und damit verbundener Nahtgeometrie auf die Eigenspannungsausbildung und Gesamtbeanspruchung in hochfesten Schweißverbindungen ermittelt. Mit einer speziellen Prüfanlage (CTW-Test) wurden Proben unter definiertem, bauteilrelevantem Einspanngrad in Nahtquerrichtung mehrlagig geschweißt. Dabei zeigte sich insbesondere für das Nahtvolumen ein signifikanter Einfluss auf die globalen Reaktionsspannungen. Ferner sind die lokalen Zugeigenspannungen im Bereich des Schweißgutes durch den Einsatz modifizierter Sprühlichtbogenprozesse geringer.
Welding residual stress engineering by means of an adjusted martensite phase transformation would be highly attractive as detrimental tensile residual stresses may be prevented already during welding without time and cost intensive post processing. The present study shows a synchrotron diffraction analysis of a martensitic steel subjected to thermo-mechanical load cycles. Experiments were conducted regarding the microstructural strain response during the austenite to martensite transformation. The strains are a function of the temperature and the specific loads applied during cooling. The relation between the transformation plasticity of the material, the amount of martensite formed and the arising strains can thus be assessed. The lattice plane specific strains were compared to experimental findings from (macro) dilatation tests. It is shown that the microscopic material behavior differs remarkably from the one observed on the macroscopic scale, what leads to characteristic residual stresses in the material.
Residual stresses are crucial when assessing the performance of welded components. The present work deals with the possibilities of transferring the real-life boundary conditions of welding, which influence the residual stress, into the laboratory. The possibilities of a test system with a load capacity of 2 MN specifically developed for online monitoring of stress formation and cracking are shown. Due to the structural design, global process, geometry and material-dependent stresses are induced, which can be quantified in-situ during welding and post weld heat treatment. Examples are presented how the conditions to be found during production are simulated in the laboratory. It is shown how welding residual stresses in high-strength steels are affected by the heat control. Elevated working temperatures significantly increase the tensile residual stresses in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The effect of mechanical stresses resulting from welding on stress relief cracking is demonstrated by the example of a creep resistant steel. Reheat cracks were monitored online during post weld heat treatment.
The roles of microalloying niobium, titanium and vanadium for controlling austenite grain growth, microstructure evolution and hardness were investigated at different simulated heat affected zones (HAZ) for high strength low alloy (HSLA) S690QL steel. High resolution FEG-SEM has been used to characterize fine bainitic ferrite, martensite and nanosized second phases at simulated coarse and fine grain HAZs. It was found that for Ti bearing steel (Ti/N ratio is 2) austenite grain had the slowest growth rate due to the presence of most stable TiN. The fine cuboidal particles promoted intragranular acicular ferrite (IGF) formation. Nb bearing steel exhibited relatively weaker grain growth retardation compared with titanium bearing steels and a mixed microstructure of bainite and martensite was present for all simulated HAZs. IGF existed at coarse grain HAZ of Ti+V bearing steel but it was totally replaced by bainite at fine grain HAZs. Hardness result was closely related to the morphology of bainitic ferrite, intragranular ferrite and second phases within ferrite. The microstructure and hardness results of different simulated HAZs were in good agreement with welded experimental results.
The steel grade 20MnMoNi5-5 (according to German DIN standard or 16MND5 according to French AFNOR standard) is widely applied in (weld) fabrication of reactor pressure vessel components. Thus, a wide range of welding technologies (like submerged arc welding (SAW) or tungsten inert gas (TIG)) is used resulting in different heat affected zone (HAZ) microstructures. During weld fabrication, the weld joints may take up hydrogen. Especially, the HAZ shows an increased susceptibility for a degradation of the mechanical properties in presence of hydrogen. In addition, the hydrogen-assisted degradation of mechanical properties is influenced by three main local factors: hydrogen concentration, microstructure, and load condition. Hence, the base material (BM) and two different simulated non-tempered as-quenched HAZ microstructures were examined using hydrogen-free and hydrogen-charged tensile specimens. The results indicate that the effect of hydrogen on the degradation is significantly increased in case of the HAZ compared to the BM. In addition, hydrogen has remarkable effect in terms of reduction of ductility. It was ascertained that the degradation of the mechanical properties increases in the order of BM, bainitic HAZ, and the martensitic HAZ. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) investigation showed a distinct change of the fracture topography depended on the microstructure with increasing hydrogen concentration in case of the as-quenched HAZ microstructures.
In situ crack detection in the mushy zone and the solid weld of a gas tungsten arc (GTA) weld using X-ray imaging during welding is a new research area for NDT inspection. Usually, NDT flaw detection is done after the complete solidification of the weld seam. In this paper, we present the use of real-time radiography with a minifocus X-ray source (YXLON X-ray tube Y.TU 225-D04) and a 75μm pixel size digital detector array (Dexela 1512) for the acquisition of 2D radiographic images by a sequence of exposures with time intervals of 80 ms for hot crack detection during single pass bead-on-plate GTA welding of 3 mm thick plates of aluminium alloy AlMgSi (6060). An analysis of the crack distribution in the weld sample is conducted from the acquired 2D radiographs and its corresponding 3D volumetric reconstruction achieved by linear coplanar digital laminography.
This in situ approach opens new possibilities in the field of hot crack research by having the direct information of both the crack initiation and growth and its correlation to the welding parameters.
A long list of criteria determining the hot cracking susceptibility already exists. A main influence on solidification cracking can result from the design of the welded construction, i.e. from the influence of external loads. Using the Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) test, an external load hot cracking test, the influence of constant pre-load and different extension rates on the solidification cracking behavior of GTA (Gas Tungsten Arc) welds in an austenitic (AISI 309) and a ferritic (AISI 441) steel were investigated. Compared to specimens welded allowing free shrinkage and welded with an applied constant tensile pre-load, the specimens welded during the application of increasing tensile load show solidification cracks. In the weld seams, a characteristic angle α between the predominantly columnar grains and the fusion line can be observed. Specimens showing solidification cracks show a significantly larger angle α compared to the crack-free specimens. Based on these observations, the characteristic angle α is proposed as a new hot cracking criterion.
Three high-strength Nb-, Ti- and Ti + Vmicroalloyed S690QL steels were welded to investigate the formation of softened HAZ and its impact on tensile properties. The welding was performed with three levels of heat input to produce softened zones with different characteristics (softening width, minimum hardness and softening ratio), and then, further tensile tests were done to study their influence on weld performance. The results showed that Ti bearing steel exhibited the lowest resistance to softening with the presence of largest soften width and lowest hardness value, causing final tensile failure occurred at softened HAZ. The metallurgical reason for the lower hardness is the high fraction of coarse ferrite. Nb- and Ti + V-bearing steels suffered moderate softening, due to high hardenability with addition of Mo, Nb and V, but the softening effect did not remarkably influence the tensile properties of these two steels.
Der verstärkte Einsatz höherfester Stähle und Zusatzwerkstoffe erfordert ein vertieftes Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Schweißverfahren, Wärmeeinbringung, Abkühlbedingungen sowie den daraus resultierenden metallurgischen Vorgängen in der Schweißnaht und deren Umgebung. Nur aus dem Zusammenwirken aller Einflussfaktoren lassen sich Strategien ableiten, mit deren Hilfe die Festigkeitseigenschaften bzw. die Lebensdauer von Schweißkonstruktionen in einem Maße verbessert werden können, die den Einsatz höherfester Werkstoffe rechtfertigen und somit deren Leichtbaupotenzial voll ausgenutzt werden kann. Vorgestellt werden einige beispielhafte Untersuchungen an Schweißverbindungen aus höherfesten Feinkornbaustählen zu Interaktionen der Haupteinflussgrößen auf die Kaltrissbildung.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The increased utilisation of higher-strength steels and filler materials necessitates more profound understanding of the connections between the welding process, the heat input, the cooling conditions and the resulting metallurgical processes in the weld and its surroundings. Strategies which help to improve the strength properties and service lives of welded structures to such an extent that the utilisation of higher-strength materials can be justified and their lightweight construction potential can thus be exploited to the full can only be derived from the interaction between all the influencing factors. Examples of a few investigations on welded joints between higher- strength fine-grained structural steels with regard to the interactions between the main variables influencing the cold cracking are presented in this article.
Der verstärkte Einsatz höherfester Stähle und Zusatzwerkstoffe erfordert ein vertieftes Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Schweißverfahren, Wärmeeinbringung, Abkühlbedingungen sowie den daraus resultierenden metallurgischen Vorgängen in der Schweißnaht und deren Umgebung. Nur aus dem Zusammenwirken aller Einflussfaktoren lassen sich Strategien ablelten, mit deren Hilfe die Festigkeitseigenschaften bzw. die Lebensdauer von Schweißkonstruktionen in einem Maße verbessert werden können, die den Einsatz höherfester Werkstoffe rechtfertigen und somit deren Leichtbaupotenzial voll ausgenutzt werden kann. Vorgestellt werden einige beispielhafte Untersuchungen an Schweißverbindungen aus höherfesten Feinkornbaustählen zu Interaktionen der Haupteinflussgrößen auf die Kaltrissbildung.
High strength structural steels are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. A critical combination of stress, amount of diffusible hydrogen and microstructure is believed to cause cold cracking. Especially during welding of high strength structural steels high tensile residual stresses may develop. Therefore, a feasibility study was conducted using synchrotron X-ray diffraction in order to analyze the stress–strain behavior during tensile loading. For that purpose two types of steel showing different hardening mechanisms were used. On the one hand a thermo-mechanically treated S1100MC and on the other hand a quenched and tempered S1300Q were chosen. The samples were electrochemically charged with hydrogen and subsequently stored in liquid nitrogen to prevent effusion. Tensile tests of the samples were conducted in a special load frame allowing for tilting the samples while applying constant loads. High energy synchrotron radiation was used for energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXRD) analysis in transmission geometry. This method offers the possibility for measuring several diffraction lines of all contributing crystalline phases of the material. Strains as well as stresses applying the sin²ψ-method were determined for varying load situations. This feasibility study shows how the interaction of hydrogen and the stress/strain response may be assessed by diffraction methods. Examples are presented showing that hydrogen alters the load distribution as well as the strain behavior between different lattice planes in high strength steels.
Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) is a widely known phenomenon and under investigation already for more than a century. This phenomenon, though thoroughly studied, is not yet completely understood, and so far, there are several suggested mechanisms that try to explain the occurrence of HE. One important factor of understanding the HE phenomenon and predicting hydrogen-assisted failure is the descent knowledge about the hydrogen transport behaviour in the material. Neutron radiography is a proven method for tracking hydrogen diffusion and it was applied successfully in various research studies. In the presented study, we examined the hydrogen effusion behaviour in duplex stainless steel by means of neutron radiography and calculated the effective diffusion coefficient from the obtained transmission images.
Controlling the level of mostly detrimental residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time and cost consuming post processing may be prevented. Innovative Low Transformation Temperature (LTT-) filler materials are specially designed for Controlling weld residual stresses by means of adjusted martensite formation already during welding. Numerous publications can be found on this issue, but they provide only little insight into the interaction between martensite formation and resulting welding residual stresses. Within this study a component weld test was performed in a special large-scale testing facility. In-situ load analysis revealed that the amount of stress reduction during deposition of the individual weld runs is dependent on the weld volume undergoing phase transformation related to the shrinking volume. The residual stresses found alter welding show that the desired residual stress control by using LTT alloys is sensitive to welding boundary conditions (i. e. weld geometry, plate thickness) and to be evaluated separately for varying weld scenarios.
Aus wirtschaftlichen, konstruktiven sowie ästhetischen Aspekten werden moderne Stahlbaukonstruktionen immer schlanker und leichter ausgeführt. Dazu werden zunehmend höherfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Dehngrenzen von 690 MPa bis 960 MPa in Einzelfällen bis 1100 MPa eingesetzt, Beispiele hierfür sind unter anderem die Dachkonstruktion des Sony-Centers in Berlin sowie Elemente beim Ausleger und die Tragstrukturen von Mobilkranen, die oft aus S960 oder sogar S1100 gefertigt werden, Je nach Ausnutzung der höheren Dehngrenze kann eine Gewichtsreduzierung von 30 % bis 50 % und eine Kostenersparnis von 5 % bis 15 % erreicht werden. Eine Studie der Dillinger Hütte GTS an vergleichenden Unterpulver (UP)-Schweißungen aus verschiedenen höherfesten Stählen verdeutlicht das Einsparungspotential.
For a newly developed 10% Cr and 10% Ni low transformation temperature (LTT) weld filler material, the local phase transformation kinetics and the strain evolution during gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) under real welding conditions was studied. An experimental set-up and a measuring and evaluation strategy are presented to gain a real time insight into the welding process. The experiments were carried out at the beam line ID15@ESRF using a two detector EDXRD (energy dispersive X-ray diffraction) set-up and high energy synchrotron X-rays. The time-resolved diffraction analysis during welding was carried out locally throughout the weld in longitudinal as well as in transverse direction to the weld line to examine the interdependence of the strain state and the transformation kinetics. This comprehension is crucial for the optimization of the weld process, and thus for the tailoring of the resulting residual stress states, which is one of the main issues for the application of LTT alloys. Using the herein proposed approach EDXRD diffraction pattern can be monitored during real welding with a counting rate of 5 Hz. By means of the time resolved diffraction data the local transformation temperatures and times were determined and the local phasespecific strain evolutions are discussed with respect to the transformation rates and the time-delayed phase transformations.
The results reported in this research study are part of a larger EU RFCS (Research Fund for Coal and Steel) project where the aim is to study the fatigue behavior of improved welds in high strength steels by utilizing different improvement techniques. In this particular study LTT (Low Transformation Temperature) weld filler material have been investigated and their possibility to improve the fatigue strength. The characteristic of these filler material is that they undergo phase transformation at temperature close to room temperature which will reduce the tensile residual stress in the weld and in some cases result in compressive residual stresses. Two different LTT alloy compositions have been developed, with different Ms (Martensite Start) temperatures in order to study the amount of tensile/compressive residual stresses produced by these wires. Welding residual stress measurements were carried out by X-ray diffraction technique. Plates with welded longitudinal attachments were fabricated in 700 MPa and 960 MPa steel grades using different LTT filler materials. These specimens were fatigue tested in constant and variable amplitude loading and the fatigue test results were compared with results from specimen welded with conventional weld filler material.
Correlating welding reaction stresses and weld process conditons for high-strength steel S960QL
(2014)
As a result of current trends towards lightweight design, a growing amount of high-strength steels with yield strengths above 690 MPa is applied. In comparison to the weld process of lower-strength steels, small working ranges have to be achieved with respect to a special microstructure and high yield ratio. However, the sustainable and economic application of these steels depends on the loading capacity and the safety of welds when designing weld constructions. For these demands, a precise knowledge of welding stress level and distribution is essential. Therefore, the present study is concerned with the interaction between heat control (interpass temperature and heat input) and local as well as global stresses in high-strength steel welds. Specimens were multirun welded under defined restraint conditions in a special test facility (controlled tensile weldability (CTW) test) to consider global restraint. For the comparison concerning local residual stresses, free shrinkage test welds were performed as well. The evaluation shows a significant influence of the interpass temperature on the global reaction forces. Furthermore, increased heat input and high interpass temperatures cause higher tensile residual stresses. This occurred in the weld area of both free shrinkage test specimen and CTW test specimen.
Today high-strength structural steels (yield strength ≥ 960 MPa) are increasingly applied. Therefore, weldments have to achieve equal strength. Yet, high residual stresses in those welds diminish the components safety. Especially high restraint intensities can lead to crack-critical stress-levels. A special 2-MN-test facility allowed online-measurements of global reaction forces under defined restraint conditions during welding and cooling of multilayer-component MAG-welds. Local residual stresses were measured via X-ray diffraction before and after relief of the restraint. Local and global stresses were highly affected by heat control.
Residual stress engineering in welding becomes more and more prominent as the use of tailored materials, e.g., high-strength steels, calls for maximum utilization of the material properties. As a consequence, residual stresses have to be considered as design criterion. Moreover, it may be utilized to improve the material's performance. Low transformation temperature alloys are a smart approach to control the residual stresses already during the welding process avoiding time-consuming postweld treatments. This paper gives an overview about the progress made in research in this topic with special focus on residual stresses. Basics as well as important developments will be addressed.
Results obtained from laboratory tests mostly need to be verified under fabrication conditions in order to incorporate design specifics (joint configuration and restraint), which effect the residual stress state considerably. For this purpose, multi-pass sub merged arc welding was performed in a special large-scale testing facility. The impact of varying interpass temperatures could be proven in-situ by means of a pronounced stress accumulation during welding and subsequent heat treatment accompanied by stress determination using X-ray diffraction.
In modernen Stahlkonstruktionen werden zunehmend hochfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Streckgrenzen ab 960 MPa eingesetzt. Die wirtschaftliche Verarbeitung dieser Stähle wird neben der Erreichung der anforderungsgerechten mechanischen Eigenschaften durch die Sicherheitsanforderungen an die Schweißnaht bestimmt. Dabei bedingen hohe Eigenspannungen im Schweißnahtbereich eine Reduzierung der Bauteilsicherheit. Insbesondere bei erhöhter konstruktiver Schrumpfbehinderung können Eigenspannungen risskritisches Niveau erreichen. In einer speziellen 2- MN-Prüfanlage wurden dazu Bauteilschweißversuche mit definierter äußerer Schrumpfbehinderung abgebildet. Während dieser mehrlagigen Schweißversuche war die gleichzeitige Messung von Temperatur und Reaktionskräften beim Schweißen und Abkühlen möglich. Die schweißnahtnahen Eigenspannungen wurden mittels röntgenographischer Eigenspannungsanalyse vor und nach dem Entlasten des Probeblechs in der Prüfanlage ermittelt. Sowohl die globalen als auch die lokalen schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen waren deutlich von der Wärmeführung beeinflusst.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Modern steel constructions are built increasingly using highstrength fine-grained structural steels with a yield strength of ≥ 960 MPa. The efficient processing of these steels is determined not only by the achievement of the mechanical properties needed but also by the safety requirements of the weld. High stresses in the weld area cause a reduction of the component safety. Residual stresses can reach a critical level at which the material is susceptible to cracking, especially in case of increased constructive restraint. For this purpose, component weld tests with a defined external restraint were reproduced in a special 2-MN-testing facility. During these multi-layer weld tests the simultaneous measurement of the temperature and reaction forces during welding and cooling was possible. The residual stresses of the weld joint area were determined by means of X-ray difraction analysis before and after release of the restraint. The global stresses due to welding as well as the local ones were clearly influenced by the heat control.
We investigated the hydrogen distribution spatially and temporally in technical iron at room temperature. Samples were charged electrochemically and subsequently analysed by means of neutron radiography and tomography. The radiographic images allowed for a time-resolved analysis of hydrogen fluxes. The three-dimensional distribution of hydrogen measured by neutron tomography delivered valuable information for the damage analysis of hydrogen-induced cracks. For the first time hydrogen concentration gradients inside the material could be detect directly together with the cracks. The neutron radiography and tomography results were gained at the Research Reactor BER II of the HZB in Berlin.
We investigated hydrogen embrittlement and blistering in electrochemically hydrogen-charged technical iron samples at room temperature. Hydrogen-stimulated cracks and blisters and the corresponding hydrogen distributions were observed by neutron tomography. Cold neutrons were provided by the research reactor BER II to picture the sample with a spatial resolution in the reconstructed three-dimensional model of ~25 µm. We made the unique observation that cracks were filled with molecular hydrogen and that cracks were surrounded by a 50 µm wide zone with a high hydrogen concentration. The zone contains up to ten times more hydrogen than the bulk material. The hydrogen enriched zone can be ascribed to a region of increased local defect density. Hydrogen also accumulated at the sample surface having the highest concentration at blistered areas. The surfaces of the brittle fractured cracks showed micropores visualized by scanning electron microscopy. The micropores were located at grain boundaries and were surrounded by stress fields detected by electron backscattered diffraction. The cracks clearly originated from the micropores.
Stress build up in low transformation temperature filler material under defined restraint conditions
(2009)
Comparative study between hot extraction methods and mercury method - a national round robin test
(2010)
The purpose of the present study was to show the feasibility of measuring hydrogen effusion in austenitic stainless steel (1.4301) using neutron radiography at the facility ANTARES of the research reactor FRM II of the Technische Universität München. This method is appropriate to measure in-situ hydrogen effusion for hydrogen concentrations as small as 20 ppmH. Experiments were carried out in the temperature range from room temperature up to 533 K. The measurement principle is based on the parallel comparison of electrochemically hydrogen charged specimen with hydrogen-free reference specimen at the same temperature. This allows the determination of the hydrogen concentration in the specimens as a function of time and temperature. Separate hot carrier gas extraction experiments using the same temperature–time profiles as the radiography experiments have been used to calibrate the grey values of the neutron transmission images into hydrogen concentrations. It can be stated that the hydrogen effusion correlates with the specimen temperature.
Novel martensitic filler materials with specially adjusted martensite start temperatures (Ms) can counteract the cooling specific shrinkage due to expansion effects of the weld metal associated with phase transformations. That can be exploited to create compressive residual stresses in the weld and adjacent areas, i.e. beneficial for increasing fatigue strength. The Ms-temperature is shifted via the chemical composition, mainly by the alloying elements nickel and chromium, resulting as well in different retained austenite contents. Investigations were made using different Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys with varying nickel content. The resulting phase transformation temperatures were — for the first time — detected using high energy synchrotron diffraction and Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Compared to angle dispersive diffraction, energy dispersive diffraction offers the possibility to measure residual stresses of the martensite and austenite phase parallel fast in one experiment up to depths of 100 μm. The residual stresses show significant distributions dependent on the Ms-temperature. The effect on the cold cracking behaviour of these alloys was investigated using the Tekken test. Results show that cold cracking can be avoided when appropriate contents of retained austenite are existent.
The development of high-strength structural steels with yield strengths up to 1000 MPa results in the requirement of suitable filler materials for welding. Recently designed low transformation temperature (LTT) alloys offer appropriate strength. The martensitic phase transformation during welding induces compressive residual stress in the weld zone. Therefore, the mechanical properties of welded joints can be improved. The present paper illustrates numerical simulation of the residual stresses in LTT-welds taking into account the effect of varying Ms/Mf-temperatures, and therefore different retained austenite contents, on the residual stresses. Residual stress distributions measured by synchrotron diffraction are taken as evaluation basis. A numerical model for the simulation of transformation affected welds is established and can be used for identification of appropriate Ms-temperatures considering the content of retained austenite.
Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys were developed in order to control the residual stress development by the martensitic phase transformation already during cooling of the weld metal. The positive effect of such LTT alloys on the mitigation of detrimental tensile residual stresses during welding has already been confirmed on the basis of individual laboratory tests. Within the current project it was experimentally investigated whether the phase transformation mechanisms are effective under increased restraint due to multi-pass welding of thicker specimens. The local residual stress depth distribution was analyzed non-destructively for V-type welds processed by arc welding using energy dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction (EDXRD). The use of high energy (20 keV to 150 keV) EDXRD allowed for the evaluation of diffraction spectra containing information of all contributing phases. As the investigated LTT alloy contains retained austenite after welding, this phase was also considered for stress analysis. The results show in particular how the constraining effect of increased thickness of the welded plates and additional deposited weld metal influences the level of the residual stresses in near weld surface areas. While the longitudinal residual stresses were reduced in general, in the transition zone from the weld to the heat-affected zone (HAZ) compressive residual stresses were found.
Wasserstoffanalytik und Degradation von Werkstoffeigenschaften von hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen
(2011)
For the safety and cost efficiency of welded high-strength steel structures, precise knowledge of the level and distribution of welding- and cooling-specific stresses and residual stresses is essential, since they exert a decisive influence on strength, crack resistance, and finally on the bearable service load. This paper presents innovative filler materials, of which the phase transformation temperature was deliberately adjusted via the chemical composition. The transformation behaviour of these martensitic Low Transformation Temperature (LTT-) filler materials shows direct effects on the local residual stresses in the weld and the HAZ. These effects can purposefully be exploited to counteract the thermally induced shrinkage of the material and to produce significant compressive residual stresses in the weld. Comparative welding experiments were carried out on 690 MPa high-strength base materials using various LTT-filler materials. High energy synchrotron radiation was used for residual stress measurement. Particularly the use of high energy synchrotron radiation makes it possible to detect the residual stress condition fast without destruction of material. Thereby, residual stress depth gradients can be determined simultaneously without removing material. In steel, gradients of up to 150 µm can be resolved in such a way. Furthermore, the application of high energy radiation permits determination of residual stresses of any available residual austenite contents. Results show significant dependence of transformation temperatures on the resulting residual stress level and distribution.
Cold cracking resistance is a relevant evaluation criterion for welded joints and affected by residual stresses which result from the welding procedure. Compressive residual stresses can thereby have a positive influence on preventing cracking. A unique possibility of generating compressive residual stresses already during the welding procedure is offered by the so-called Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler wires. Compared to conventional wires, these materials show decreased phase transformation temperatures which can work against the cooling-specific contraction. In consequence, distinct compressive residual stresses can be observed within the weld and adjacent areas. The strength of these fillers makes them potentially applicable to high-strength steel welding. Investigations were carried out to determine the phase transformation behaviour of different LTT-filler materials. Transformation temperatures were identified using Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Additionally Synchrotron radiation was used to measure the transformation kinetics of all involved crystalline phases during heating and cooling of a simulated weld thermal cycle.
Comparative study between hot extraction methods and mercury method - a national round robin test
(2010)
A round robin test is presented comprising comparative measurements using hot extraction at different degassing temperatures as well as the mercury method. A major focus of the investigation was verification of the maximum degassing temperature for analysing the diffusible hydrogen in weld metals with bcc-lattice structure. The analyses were executed using a basic stick electrode with high weld metal cracking, a high-alloyed supermartensitic filler wire with different hydrogen contents in the shielding gas and a high-strength solid wire. The results show that degassing temperatures of 150 degrees C and 400 degrees C do not lead to an increase in the measured contents of diffusible hydrogen as compared to measurements at room temperature. The measuring techniques and procedures specified in ISO/DIS 3690:2009 for determining the diffusible hydrogen content in weld metals with bcc-lattice structure yield approximately the same results. This is to say that the mercury method and the hot extraction methods with thermal conductivity detector (TCD) can be regarded as equivalent reference methods.
Direct measurement and quantification of phase transformation in a low-alloyed transformation induced plasticity steels depending on the tensile load as well as determination of the real true stress and true strain values were carried out in-situ using high energy synchrotron radiation. Digital image correlation technique was used to quantify more precisely the true strain values. The aim of the work was to obtain a better understanding of the phase transformation of commercial low-alloyed transformation induced plasticity steel depending on the true strain and true stress values.
In this study, hydrogen absorption and diffusion were investigated for various high-alloyed ferritic-austenitic duplex steels. On account of the specific transformation and solidification behaviour, respectively, of duplex steels as compared to single-phase ferritic and austenitic steels, special conditions have to be considered concerning hydrogen absorption which may ultimately lead to microstructure-dependent hydrogen-assisted weld metal cracking. Hydrogen absorption during welding may occur via the shielding gas, moisture from the surroundings or via the welding filler material. As a contribution to the interpretation and prediction of hydrogen-induced cracking in welded duplex steels, the actual hydrogen absorption via the arc as well as the weld metal hydrogen diffusion was investigated for the first time in a duplex steel DS (1.4462), a super duplex steel SDS (1.4501) and in a lean duplex steel LDS (1.4162). Isothermal heat treatment using carrier gas hot extraction enabled quantification of the amounts of hydrogen trapped in the respective microstructure areas. The hydrogen diffusion coefficients were determined by analytical and numerical calculation. The total hydrogen concentrations and the diffusion coefficients were found to be nearly identical. Trapped hydrogen was however observed to be dependent on the material and on the microstructure condition. The influence of hydrogen on the mechano-technological properties of the weld metal was characterized with the help of tensile tests. In addition, the hydrogen embrittlement effect was detected in scanning electron microscopic analyses.
This article presents the latest results of an ongoing national research project on improved models for the prediction of welding residual stresses of thick-plated welded I-girders. The experimental program is presented and the importance of different influencing factors on the residual stresses is discussed in detail. All results are compared for mild (S355J2+N) and high strength (S690QL) steel. Finally, conclusions for further works are drawn.
Modifying the level of mostly detrimental welding residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time- and cost-consuming post processing may be prevented. The nature of stress buildup during welding-associated cooling is highly affected by phase transformations. Up to now, it is not clear in which way this is applicable to real component welding exhibiting high shrinkage restraint and complex heat input. In this study, two different low transformation temperature (LTT) alloys have been investigated concerning the stress development in restrained multi-run butt welding in order to evaluate the potential of stress reduction. Pulsed gas metal arc welding (P-GMAW) welding was executed on a testing facility designed to simulate real lifelike restraint conditions of component weldments. The effect of reducedMS-temperatures and the heat control on the globally acting stresses was monitored by in-situ measurement of the reaction forces during welding fabrication. Additional local residual stress measurements allowed analyzing global as well as local loading of the welded construction. Although phase transformation has a significant influence on unloading the joint during each weld pass, the reaction stress upon cooling to room temperature seems to be determined mainly by the heat input. On the surface, low longitudinal residual stresses were observed in case of LTT whereas transverse residual stresses are less affected.
This article addresses the imperfections caused by the weld assembly in I-shape sections made of two structural steel grades. Load influencing imperfections are assumed as deviations from the ideal shape (e.g. bending distortion) and longitudinal residual stresses. The quality of a numerically aided design of components exposed to either compression and/or bending is significantly affected, depending on these parameters. The Eurocode (EC3) provides robust simplified models. As a result, the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) is approached on a conservative basis. The following investigations are aimed at providing further guidance on these values in component-like specimens. The long term goal is an improved understanding of the load-bearing capacity of such sections. As a first step in this process, the experimental and corresponding numerical studies are presented.
Die hier vorgestellte Großanlage zur Prüfung und Simulation von Bauteil schweißungen (GAPSI 16) mit einer Maximalprüfkraft von ±16 MN erlaubt wirklichkeitsnahe Analysen des Bau teilverhaltens während des Schwei ßens. Ein fundamentaler Vorteil ge genüber konventionellen Universal prüfmaschinen ist, Momente während des Schweißens mittels acht unabhän giger Hydraulikzylinder in zwei Prüf tischen aufbringen bzw. registrieren zu können.
Derzeitige Forschungsvorhaben sind zum einen Spannungs- und Verformungsvorgängen während des Schweißens von Blechen und zum anderen Modellen gewidmet, womit Kenngrößen für Flammrichtarbeiten ermittelt werden können. Simulations versuche an Großproben tragen we sentlich zu höherer Aussagesicherheit bei, zumal konventionelle Prüfmetho den mit einfachen Kleinproben und auch Berechnungen nach der Finite Elemente-Methode (FEM) stets Rand bedingungen und zumeist größere Idealisierungen enthalten. Dagegen weist die Großprüfanlage GAPSI 16 mit angepaßten Probengeometrien und Spannkräften einen neuen Weg.
Low transformation temperature (LTT) alloys allow to control residual stresses already during the welding process. Especially high-strength structural steel applications may benefit from the LTT effect as they are sensitive to residual stresses due to a limited ductility. Within this study, two modified LTT alloys were tested concerning their weldability under varying conditions. Beside the transformation behavior, basic material properties were determined from all weld metal. Hot cracking as well as cold cracking susceptibility was evaluated using specific tests. The materials' capability for residual stress control was characterized by online measurements of the occurring loads during double-sided multipass fillet welding in a special test facility. Varying heat control parameters were found to affect the stress buildup significantly. In the specific case, the results revealed that higher working temperatures may favor lower stress buildup despite the higher overall heat input. Local residual stress measurements using X-ray diffraction support this finding.
Die experimentelle Spannungsanalyse dient einerseits zur Ermittlung von Materialeigenschaften, andererseits erlangt sie gerade für die wirtschaftliche Auslegung und die Integrität von geschweißten Komponenten zunehmend an Bedeutung.
Da die Höhe und Veränderung von Bauteilbeanspruchungen und deren Auswirkung auf die Sicherheit von einer Vielzahl und sich überlagernder werkstofflicher, mechanischer und thermischer Einflussfaktoren (Steifigkeitsverhältnisse, Fertigungsprozesse, Lastwechsel) abhängt, sind fertigungs- bzw. betriebsbegleitende Messungen von mechanisch und thermisch bedingten Dehnungen und daraus ermittelten Spannungen oftmals unumgänglich.
In geschweißten Komponenten sind oft komplexe Spannungs- bzw. Eigenspannungsverteilungen in den verschiedenen Raumrichtungen vorhanden. In Abhängigkeit vom anzusetzenden Tragfähigkeitsnachweis bzw. Berechnungskonzept des Tragwerkes sind sowohl experimentelle Methoden mit hoher Ortsauflösung (lokale Messungen) als auch mehrdimensionale Analysen über weite Bereiche des Bauteils (globale Messungen) von Dehnungen und Spannungen notwendig.
Neutron tomography has been applied to investigate the mechanism of hydrogen assisted cracking in technical iron and supermartensitic steel. Rectangular technical iron block samples showed blistering due to intense hydrogen charging and the tomographic method revealed in situ the spatial distribution of hydrogen and cracks. Hydrogen accumulated in a small region around cracks and the cracks are filled with hydrogen gas. Cracks close to the surface contained no hydrogen. Hydrogenous tensile test samples of supermartensitic steel were pulled until rupture and showed hydrogen accumulations at the notch base and in the plastically deformed region around the fracture surface.
The objective of the FATWELDHSS project was to study post-weld treatment techniques and their effect on the fatigue life of MAG welded attachments in High Strength Steel (HSS). Fatigue cracks in steel structures often occur at welded joints, where stress concentrations due to the joint geometry and tensile residual stresses are relatively high. Fatigue life improvement techniques, which rely on improving the stress field and/or the surface geometry around the welded joints, are generally known to be beneficial. Therefore, within the framework of this project, the following were examined: diode laser weld toe re-melting; High Frequency Mechanical Impact (HFMI) treatment; Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler wires Laser diode re-melting was used to improve the surface profile at the weld toe and thus reduce stress concentrations. HFMI treatment involving high frequency hammering of the weld toe is another technique that can produce a smooth weld toe profile but, more significantly, which also can introduce compressive residual stresses. Lastly, two new LTT filler wires were developed within the project as these can decrease or even remove tensile residual stresses resulting from weld zone shrinkage. An extensive fatigue testing programme was set up to establish the levels of improvement in the fatigue lives of the welded attachments achieved by application of the selected improvement techniques. Furthermore, two industrial demonstrators were selected that could show the project achievements in terms of facilitating the introduction of high strength steels by overcoming the limitations posed by the fatigue properties of the welded joints. In addition, modelling tools were developed to predict the residual stresses at the welded joint. Finally, practical guidelines were developed for enhancing the fatigue strength of HSS welded structures
Neutron radiography and tomography have been used for a time resolved in situ analysis and a 3D mapping of hydrogen diffusion in iron and steel. Samples were electrochemically charged with hydrogen and afterwards neutron transmission images were taken. Hydrogen diffusion coefficients in duplex stainless steel were determined at 623 K by measuring and comparing the sample's mean intensity with a hydrogen-free reference sample and subsequent normalisation to standards with known hydrogen content. In technical iron and in supermartensitic stainless steel the hydrogen distributions have been investigated. The radiographic images in iron show blisters, cracks and the distribution of molecular hydrogen inside cracks. The analysis of the diffusion behaviour of hydrogen out of a blister illustrates the capabilities of the method with respect to time and spatial resolution. The neutron tomography of supermartensitic tensile stressed samples illustrates the capability to visualise hydrogen distributions three-dimensionally. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
On a utilisé la radiographie neutronique et la tomographie pour une analyse in situ à résolution temporelle et une cartographie 3D de la diffusion de l'hydrogène dans le fer et l'acier. On a chargé des échantillons par électrochimie avec de l'hydrogène et ensuite on a pris des images par émission de neutrons. On a déterminé les coefficients de diffusion de lhydrogène dans l'acier inoxydable duplex à 623 K en mesurant et en comparant l'intensité moyenne de l'échantillon avec un échantillon de référence sans hydrogène et une normalisation subséquente à des échantillons références à teneur connue en hydrogène. On a examiné la distribution d'hydrogène dans le fer technique et dans l'acier inoxydable supermartensitique. Les images radiographiques du fer montrent des soufflures, des fissures, et la distribution de l'hydrogène moléculaire à l'intérieur des fissures. L'analyse du comportement de diffusion de l'hydrogène hors d'une soufflure illustre les possibilités de la méthode par rapport à la résolution temporelle et spatiale. La tomographie neutronique des échantillons supermartensitiques chargés en traction illustre la capacité de visualiser les distributions d'hydrogène en trois dimensions.
The application of high-strength fine-grained structural steels with yield strengths greater than or equal to 690 MPa expands because of present light weight design trends. The requirements regarding the welded components safety increased due to high loading capacity. This determines a sustainable and economic application as well. However, high welding residual stresses could diminish the components safety, especially due to high restraint conditions in component or repair welds. Therefore, this work is concerned with global and local welding stresses, especially crack-critical welding stresses in the HAZ and while root welding due to the restraint conditions. Restraint intensities of real components were analysed and realised with two different weld tests, alongside two different plate dimensions and steel grades. A comparison of the test results showed several significant effects for heat control and restraint intensity regarding restraint forces and local welding stresses. Among these effects, substantial influences were found for the filler metal selection with partially altered results for root and filler beads. Local stresses of weld seam and HAZ were affected differently.
In dem IGF-Vorhaben IGF-Nr. 17978 N (P 1011) wurden unter gezielter definierter Schrumpfbehinderung Schweißexperimente an hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen durchgeführt, um den Einfluss der Wärmeführung sowie den Einsatz modifizierter Sprühlichtbogenprozesse verbunden mit schmaleren Nahtfugen auf die lokalen Eigenspannungen und die Gesamteigenbeanspruchungen an geschweißten Bauteilen zu analysieren. Diese Kurzdarstellung fasst die wesentlichen Zusammenhänge zu schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen an hochfesten Schweißverbindungen sowie einige der erarbeiteten Erkenntnisse und erreichten Ziele des Forschungsprojektes zusammen.
Today’s efforts for lightweight design result in a growing application of high-strength structural steels from 960 MPa. In welded structures of these steels increased demands regarding component safety and a high elastic ratio should be considered. Hence, the prevention of an evolution of high weld-induced tensile residual stresses is required. Recent studies showed that component related restraint conditions of welds are able to elevate welding induced stresses to critical values, depending on material characteristics, the welding process and parameters. This work involves multi-axial welding loads as a consequence of the superposition of local residual stresses, global reaction stresses and moments, varying the welding parameters under different restraint conditions. The global welding loads are measured via GMA-weld tests in a special testing facility and via a DIC(Digital Image Correlation)-system in a slot weld. Local transverse residual stresses were analysed by means of X-ray diffraction. The application of a less amount of weld runs due to a modified welding parameters and welds seam configurations revealed as a beneficial approach to reduce welding loads in high-strength steels.
Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys are high alloyed filler materials, which exhibit a martensitic phase transformation at comparatively low temperatures in order to prevent high tensile residual stresses. A number of publications have already shown that even compressive residual stresses can be observed when using LTT filler materials. Up to know it is not clear in which way this it applicable to multi-run welding exhibiting high shrinkage restraint and complex heat input. In this study the potential for stress reduction during welding of LTT alloys was studied by numerical simulation. This allows for evaluation of the stress development in every single weid run. Additionally, the impact of the structural stiffness was incorporated by modelling a special sample geometry exhibiting a high intensity of restraint. The results show that the stress formation in weid longitudinal direction is determined by the phase transformation as high compressive residual stresses were found here independent from the weid run. On the other hand the transformation induced stresses in weid transverse direction are superimposed by tensile stresses originated from shrinkage restraint. With increasing number of runs the tensile residual stress level is raised. The results were confirmed by residual stress measurements using diffraction methods.
Novel martensitic filler materials with specially adjusted martensite start temperatures (Ms) can counteract the cooling specific shrinkage due to expansion effects of the weld metal associated with phase transformations. That can be exploited to create compressive residual stresses in the weld and adjacent areas, i.e. beneficial for increasing fatigue strength. The Ms temperature is shifted via the chemical composition, mainly by the alloying elements nickel and chromium, resulting as well in different retained austenite contents. Investigations were made using different Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys with varying nickel content. The resulting phase transformation temperatures were – for the first time – detected using high energy synchrotron diffraction and Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Compared to angle dispersive diffraction, energy dispersive diffraction offers the possibility to measure residual stresses of the martensite and austenite phase parallel fast in one experiment up to depths of 100 µm. The residual stresses show significant distributions dependent on Ms temperature. The effect on the cold cracking behaviour of these alloys was investigated using the Tekken test. Results show that cold cracking can be avoided when appropriate contents of retained austenite are existent.
Present trends to lightweight design lead to an expanding relevance of high-strength fine-grained structural steels especially in mobile crane constructions. With growing material strength, the challenge for welding fabrication increases, since high loading capacities and safety requirements have to be accomplished. The utilisation of the high strength potential often requires complex constructions associated with high restraint conditions while welding. Increased residual stresses may occur due to superimposing reaction and restraint stresses, which have to be quantified and evaluated to ensure the safety and integrity of high-strength steel constructions. Particularly, the scope of residual stresses has to be taken into account for different effects in the HAZ, notches, weld and base metal. Commonly, conservative assumptions of residual stresses lead to distinct underestimations of the load bearing capacity particularly for welded high-strength steel constructions. This study concludes results of recent works of the researchers regarding the complex interaction among heat control, material and restraint intensity on the residual stress state in welded components. These analyses are extended by further experiments. Based on the obtained major effects, an approach for a welding residual stress assessment regarding component design according to prevailing standards for crane construction, an important application for high-strength steels, is presented.
The current paper presents residual stress analyses of large scale LTT (Low Transformation Temperature) welds. LTT filler materials are specially designed for residual stress engineering by means of an adjusted martensite phase transformation. Controlling the level of mostly detrimental residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time and cost consuming post processing may be prevented. In large scale welds the residual stress state is influenced by the heat control (e.g. interpass temperature) during welding. Therefore, welding residual stresses are studied here putting the focus on the influence of welding process parameters while joining heavy steel sections with a thickness of 25 mm. The residual stress state was determined at the top surface using X-ray diffraction as well as in the bulk by neutron diffraction. The results show that control of the interpass temperature is vital for the residual stresses present in the joints. This accounts for the top surface but is most pronounced for the bulk of the welds. While high interpass temperatures are appropriate to induce compressive residual stresses in the weld metal, low interpass temperatures favor unwanted tensile residual stresses instead.
A commonly used way of minimizing the occurrence of hot cracks, especially solidification cracks during component welding, is mainly to analyse and vary process parameters such as welding speed and consequently the heat input. Metallurgy and component design are however hardly ever considered due to special production requirements and therefore, restricted flexibility in material selection and design. Such conditions, especially crack-critical welding positions are given by slot-welds or welds near pre-deformed areas, for instance bending edges. Hence, it follows that increased local and global residual component stress caused cracking on reaching a solidification crack critical level, which is characterised by solidification crack initiation.
Carbon arc-air gouging is a common technology when repairing defects in welded structures. Often this technique is applied in repeated cycles even on the same location of the joint. Due to the multiple heat input by gouging and subsequent re-welding, the residual stresses are strongly influenced. This can become crucial when microstructure and mechanical properties are adversely affected by multiple weld reparations. Knowledge about the relation of gouging and residual stresses is scarce but important when high strength steels, which are sensitive to residual stresses, are processed. The present study shows the effect of repair welding on a high strength steel structural element. The weld and the heat affected zone were subjected to multiple thermal cycles by gouging and subsequent repair welding. The residual stresses were determined by X-ray diffraction at different positions along the joint. The results showed that the residual stress level has increased by the repair cycles. This is most pronounced for the heat affected zone. Adapted welding procedures may prevent detrimental residual stress distributions.
The increasing application of supermartensitic steels for welded pipelines is an economical alternative to the hitherto used higher-alloyed materials in the North Sea oil and gas indus-try. Failure in such constructions must at any rate be excluded for economical and ecologi-cal reasons. The application of these steels for the transport of corrosive mixtures may, however, involve hydrogen pickup with subsequent hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion cracking. It is therefore necessary not only to assure the weldability, but particularly to have best possible knowledge of the service behaviour and of the failure risk. In order to ensure the transferability of test results to real joined components, innovative test methods are in-creasingly required to be incorporated into a closed test sequence. It will be demonstrated how it is possible to gain significant advantages from the direct comparison between ex-perimentally determined results from component weld tests on the one hand and material-specific data from small-scale tests on the other hand and numerical simulations. These data that have now been made available are of major importance for industrial applications and are considered to provide a sound basis for realistic lifetime assessments.
Measurement and numerical modeling of residual stresses in welded HSLA component-like I-girders
(2016)
The present contribution shows the residual stress results obtained from experiments with the sectioning method in comparison to global(structural) welding simulation models on component-like (i.e., large scale) I-girders made
of structural steel grades S355 and S690QL. Plates were welded by conventional gas metal arc welding using two different heat inputs. In addition, the base material was assumed to be stress-free. Based on these results, conclusions and recommendations for the design of welded I-girders are drawn.
Residual stresses and distortions in welded I-girders for steel construction are relevant when evaluating the stability of steel beams and column members. The application of high strength steels allows smaller wall thicknesses compared to conventional steels. Therefore, the risk of buckling has to be considered carefully. Due to the lack of knowledge concerning the residual stresses present after welding in high strength steel components conservative assumptions of their level and distribution is typically applied. In this study I-girders made of steels showing strengths of 355 MPa and 690 MPa were welded with varying heat input. Due to the dimension of the I-girders and the complex geometry the accessibility for residual stress measurement using X-ray diffraction was limited. Therefore, saw cutting accompanied by strain gauge measurement has been used to produce smaller sections appropriate to apply X-ray diffraction. The stress relaxation measured by strain gauges has been added to residual stresses determined by X-ray diffraction to obtain the original stress level and distribution before sectioning. The combination of both techniques can produce robust residual stress values. From practical point of view afford for strain gauge application can be limited to a number of measuring positions solely to record the global amount of stress relaxation. X-ray diffraction can be applied after sectioning to determine the residual stresses with sufficient spatial resolution.
The nonlinear analysis became a common tool to precisely assess the load-bearing behavior of steel beam and column members. The failure level is significantly influenced by different types of imperfections, among geometric also structural imperfections (residual stresses). Here are still gaps in the knowledge. Nowadays, 3-D welding simulation developed to a level where it could provide reliable estimation of weld-induced distortion and residual stresses. Nevertheless, modelling and computational effort are still in a less practicable range. In this study a simplified procedure to implement residual welding stresses in continuous large scale members is proposed and the influence on the ultimate limit state of slender members in compression is evaluated for two common structural steel grades. The results showed significant improvements in the utilization of load bearing capacity compared with simplified design methods. The comparatively general approach in this study offers
potential for future optimization.
Hydrogen can have an extreme degradation effects in steels, particularly concerning the mechanical properties. These effects can lead to hydrogen-assisted cracking in microalloyed high-strength steels during fabrication and/or operation in industrial applications. In order to study these effects, electrochemically charged tensile specimens were tested to elucidate the degradation of their properties. The carrier gas hot extraction (CGHE) method, which functionally combines a mass spectrometer with a thermal desorption analysis (TDA) process, was used for the detection of ultra-low diffusible hydrogen concentrations in the material specimens. The mass spectrometer provided rapid and automatic determination of hydrogen concentration, whereas the TDA presented the activation energy within the respective test specimen at the specific temperature. Additionally, specimen temperature was carefully monitored to reduce the evaluation error for local effusion peaks. A quenching and deformation dilatometer was used for the analysis of typical heat-affected zones during the welding process for a high reproducibility of the homogenous microstructures that were studied. The present work shows the interaction between hydrogen and lattice defects in different microalloyed materials and heat-affected zones of weldable fine-grained steels. These steels were prepared in a quenched and tempered condition and in a thermo-mechanically rolled condition. These preparations were made according to German standard DIN EN 10025-6 and to DIN EN 10149-2, respectively. The trapping characteristics of two steel grades, S690QL and S700MC, were studied with respect to the activation energy dependent on carbon content and microalloying elements such as Ti, Nb, Mo, Cr, and V. The two steel grades exhibited several types of traps: carbide formations, dislocations, and/or grain boundaries were common, which can influence activation energy and hydrogen solubility. The type and dimension of inclusions or particles also affected the hydrogen trapping behavior. A decrease of carbon and specific alloying elements in thermo-mechanically hot rolled steels led to a change in the activation energy binding the trapped hydrogen. This thermo-mechanically hot rolled steel revealed an increased interaction between hydrogen and precipitations. The higher carbon content in the quenched and tempered steel led to a higher interaction between hydrogen and iron carbide, specifically in the martensitic phase. Furthermore, the trapping behavior in heat-affected zones showed a significant increase in activation energy, especially in the coarse-grained microstructure. These previously mentioned various effects were studied to better understand the degradation of mechanical properties in these two steels.
A laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) system was combined with a bead-on-plate Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding process for the in situ measurement of chemical compositions in austenitic stainless steels during welding.Monitoring the weld pool's chemical composition allows governing the weld pool solidification behavior, and thus enables the reduction of susceptibility to weld defects. Conventional inspection methods for weld seams (e.g. ultrasonic inspection) cannot be performed during the welding process. The analysis system also allows in situ study of the correlation between the occurrence ofweld defects and changes in the chemical composition in theweld pool or in the two-phase regionwhere solid and liquid phase coexist. First experiments showed that both the shielding Ar gas and the welding arc plasma have a significant effect on the selected Cr II, Ni II and MnII characteristicemissions, namely an artificial increase of intensity values via unspecific emission in the spectra.
In situ investigations showed that this artificial intensity increase reached a maximum in presence of weld plume. Moreover, an explicit decay has been observedwith the termination of thewelding plumedue to infrared radiation during sample cooling. Furthermore, LIBS can be used after welding to map element distribution. For austenitic stainless steels,Mnaccumulations on both sides of theweld could be detected between the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the base material.
The increased application of higher-strength steels and filler materials necessitates a more profound understanding of the interactions between the welding process, the heat input, the cooling conditions and the resulting metallurgical processes in the weid and its surroundings. Strategies, which help to improve the strength properties and life-time of welded stmctures to such an extent that the utilisation of higher-strength materials can be justified and their lightweight construction potential can thus be exploited to the füll, can only be derived from the interaction between all the influencing factors. Examples of a few investigations on welded joints between higher-strength fine-grained structural steels with regard to the interactions between the main variables influencing the cold cracking are presented in this article.
This article provides an impression on potentials in applying nowadays welding simulation tools in construction design. This is carried out exemplary on plate girders from two structural steel grades. The calculated residual stresses are compared with measurements by sectioning method. It has been repeatedly stated that present Eurocode models fail to approximate the residual stresses. Especially for high strength steel (HSS) only limited information is available on realistic occurring residual stresses in typical I-girders. The investigations are aimed to give further guidance on these values. A few proposals on advanced models are discussed.
Is it reasonable to restrict ISO 3690 any longer to the determination of the weld metal hydrogen content of ferritic steel?
In what respect is the determination of the content of the diffusible and of the total hydrogen content, respectively, (still) merely a research task (supermartensite, duplex materials, austenite, magnesium, aluminium), or is there actually a demand in industry and is there already a first cause for monitoring in view of damage prevention, respectively?
Is there a need, arising from the development of materials and filler materials and from their intended applications, for more extensive standards dealing with hydrogen analyses for these materials?
Which parts of ISO 3690 could also be applied to any other metallic material/filler material, if necessary, and where would a complete alteration be required, respectively?
In situ EDXRD study of MAG-welding using LTT weld filler materials under structural restraint
(2017)
Welding using low transformation temperature (LTT) filler materials is an innovative approach to mitigate detrimental welding residual stresses without cost-intensive post weldtreatments. Due to the local Generation of compressive residual stresses in the weld line by means of a delayed martensite transformation a significant enhancement of the cold cracking resistance of highly stressed welded components can be expected. For the effective usage of These materials a deeper understanding of the microstructural evolution inside the weld material is necessary to determine the complex processes that cause the residual stress formation during welding. Solid-state phase transformation kinetics and the evolution of strain in LTT weld filler materials are monitored in-situ at the instrument ID15A at the ESRF in Grenoble, France. The transferability to real components is implemented by using a realistic MAG welding process under consideration of structural restraint. During welding of multilayer joints, the phase Transformation and phase specific strain evolution of each individual layer is investigated in transmission geometry by means of energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction EDXRD using high energy synchrotron Radiation with a counting rate of 2.5 Hz. The measurement results of a 10% Cr / 10% Ni LTT weld filler are compared to data monitored for the conventional weld filler material G89. The in-situ data clearly indicate a strong effect on the local strain evolution and the formation of compressive strain. This results from the restraint volume expansion during the postponed austenite to martensite transformation of the LTT weld filler, which counteracts the thermal shrinkage. In contrast, for the conventional weld filler material the thermal contraction strains lead to tensile residual strain during welding. Furthermore, the results of in-situ observation during welding Show that the transformation kinetic is dependent on the welding sequence.
Die Verwendung von LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffen stellt einen alternativen Ansatz zu den sonst üblichen Verfahren der Schweißnahtnachbehandlung zur Schwingfestigkeitserhöhung geschweißter Stahlkonstruktionen dar. Der wesentliche Wirkmechanismus beruht auf der Beeinflussung des Eigenspannungszustands durch die niedrige Martensitstarttemperatur bereits während des Schweißens. Dadurch werden die Druckeigenspannungen aus der behinderten Volumenausdehnung infolge Phasenumwandlung voll wirksam. Weiter weist die Schweißnaht eine hohe Härte auf, die die Schwingrissbildung verzögern kann, allerdings auch zu einer niedrigen Kerbschlagarbeit führt.
Im ersten Teil dieses Beitrages werden grundlegende Untersuchungen zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung eines LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffes präsentiert. Dies beinhaltet zunächst die Sicherstellung der Schweißbarkeit sowie die Charakterisierung der Schweißgefüge und deren Härte mit dem Ziel, reproduzierbare Verbindungseigenschaften für die nachfolgende Schwingfestigkeitsprüfung herzustellen. Der zweite Teil des Beitrages beschäftigt sich mit den dazugehörigen Schwingfestigkeitsuntersuchungen an den Stählen S355J2 und S960Q unter Verwendung konventioneller Zusatzwerkstoffe im Vergleich zum LTT-Zusatz.
Das verwendete Schweißdetail ist eine Verbindungsschweißung am Stumpfstoß unter Variation der Schweißnahtausführung (DY-Naht und V-Naht). Weitergehend wird eine bauteilähnliche Probe (die Längssteife) untersucht, bei der der LTT-Zusatzwerkstoff als zusätzliche Schweißlage aufgebracht wurde. Neben der Schwingfestigkeit werden die Schweißnähte hinsichtlich der Eigenspannungen, der Eigenspannungsstabilität im Schwingversuch sowie metallografisch charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe unter Einhaltung wesentlicher Konstruktionsrichtlinien zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Schwingfestigkeit führen. Dadurch kann das Leichtbaupotential hochfester Stahlgüten genutzt werden.
Submerged arc welded (SAW) components of creep-resistant low-alloyed Cr-Mo-V steels are used for thick-walled heavy petrochemical reactors (wall-thickness up to 475 mm) as well as employed in construction of modern high-efficient fossil fired power plants. These large components are accompanied by significant restraints during welding fabrication, especially at positions of different thicknesses like welding of nozzles. As a result, residual stresses occur, playing a domi-nant role concerning so-called stress relief cracking (SRC) typically during post weld heat treat-ment (PWHT). Besides specific metallurgical factors (like secondary hardening due to re-precipitation), high tensile residual stresses are a considerable influence factor on SRC. For the assessment of SRC susceptibility of certain materials mostly mechanical tests are applied which are isolated from the welding process. Conclusions regarding the influence of mechanical factors are rare so far. The present research follows an approach to reproduce loads, which occur during welding of real thick-walled components scaled to laboratory conditions by using tests designed on different measures. A large-scale slit specimen giving a high restraint in 3 dimensions by high stiffness was compared to a medium-scale multi-pass welding U-profile specimen showing a high degree of restraint in longitudinal direction and a small-scale TIG-re-melted specimen. The small-scale specimens were additionally subjected to mechanical bending to induce loads that are found during fabrication on the real-scale in heavy components. Results show for all three cases compa-rable high tensile residual stresses up to yield strength with high gradients in the weld metal and the heat affected zone. Those high tensile stresses can be significant for cracking during further PWHT.
Compared to conventional welding consumables using low transformation temperature (LTT) filler materials is an innovative method to mitigate tensile residual stresses due to delayed martensite transformation of the weld. For the effective usage of LTT filler materials, a deeper understanding of the complex processes that lead to the final residual stress state during multipass welding is necessary. Transformation kinetics and the strain evolution of multi-pass welds during welding were investigated in situ at the beamline HEMS@PETRAIII, Germany. Compared to conventional welds, the total strain was reduced and compression strain was achieved when using LTT filler materials. For an optimal use of the LTT effect in the root of multi-pass welds, the alloying concept must be adapted taking care of dilution.
Optimization of welding loads with narrow groove and application of modified spray arc process
(2017)
Current efforts for lightweight design result in a growing application of high-strength fine-grained structural steel in modern constructions, e.g. mobile cranes, with yield strength from 960 MPa. The design of welded structures and welding processes becomes more challenging with increasing material strength and elastic ratios. High residual stresses are able to diminish lifetime, load capacity and component safety and should be avoided. Recent analyses have shown strong influences of heat control and restraint of the weld due to arising reaction stresses, superimposing with local residual welding stresses. Modern inverter technologies allowed the development of numerous modified spray arc processes driven by power source manufacturers, which provide virtually similar features and several benefits, enabling welding of narrower seams with reduced weld volumes and total heat inputs. This research focuses on welding loads due to modified weld seams. The global reaction forces and moments and their superposition with local residual stresses in welded components due to external shrinkage restraints were investigated using a special testing facility and XRD. The restraint intensity, weld seam geometry and welding process were varied for statistical evaluations of resulting welding loads. When welding under restraint, a reduction of the weld seam volume causes significantly lower reaction stress levels.
Der verstärkte Einsatz höherfester Stähle und Zusatzwerkstoffe erfordert ein vertieftes Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Schweißverfahren, Wärmeeinbringung, Abkühlbedingungen sowie den daraus resultierenden metallurgischen Vorgängen in der Schweißnaht und deren Umgebung. Nur aus dem Zusammenwirken aller Einflussfaktoren lassen sich Strategien ableiten, mit deren Hilfe die Festigkeitseigenschaften bzw. die Lebensdauer von Schweißkonstruktionen in einem Maße verbessert werden können, die den Einsatz höherfester Werkstoffe rechtfertigen und somit deren Leichtbaupotenzial voll ausgenutzt werden kann. Vorgestellt werden einige beispielhafte Untersuchungen an Schweißverbindungen aus höherfesten Feinkornbaustählen zu Interaktionen der Haupteinflussgrößen auf die Kaltrissbildung.
Residual stresses of welds become more and more important influencing cold cracking as well as the fatigue life of welded components. Low transformation temperature (LTT) filler materials offer the opportunity to alter the residual stresses already during the welding process by means of ad- justed martensite phase transformation temperature (MS). In the current paper, welding residual stresses are studied putting the focus on MS while joining heavy steel sections with a thickness of 20 and 25 mm, respectively. The residual stress state was determined at the top surface using X-ray diffraction as well as in the bulk by neutron diffraction. The results com- pare the residual stresses present in a conventional weld and LTT welds when multi-pass welding of large-scale compo- nents was applied. Repeated phase transformation in the case of the LTT weld is more vital for the residual stresses present in the real-life-like joints. This accounts for the top surface in longitudinal direction but is most pronounced for the bulk of the welds. Detrimental tensile residual stresses are mainly re- duced in the bulk in comparison to a conventional filler wire even in multi-pass welds of thick steel sections.
In the last decade, high-strength fine grained steels and welding consumables have gained a strong raise of application ranging from mobile cranes to bridge constructions. However, the cracking susceptibility of these steels increases significantly in correspondence with the achieved improvements in yield strength and the loss in plastic deformation reserves.
In order to determine this behavior a series of different standardized cold cracking tests has been developed. One remaining major problem of these tests is the uncertainty about the quantitative intensity of the restraint conditions as well as the corresponding welding residual stresses.
Consequently, the comparison of different tests and welding conditions as well as the transferability of the results onto real parts is difficult at best. The main topic of this paper is the analysis of the restraint conditions and their link with the welding induced residual stresses. The importance of the given standardized selfrestrained tests and first results about the transferability of
results onto real parts are discussed. The influence of the test specimen geometry on the restraint conditions of the test is investigated for a selected test with numerical Simulation using commercial FEA software. Additionally, the residual stresses caused by the welding process are measured and linked with the restraint conditions which are defined mainly by the geometry parameters.
Finally the transferability of the selected cold cracking test results is validated experimentally. The test results of a multilayer weld on high-strength fine grained steel of real size weldments are investigated. For these experiments a 16 MN large scale testing facility is used which is capable of applying the high reaction forces and clamping conditions found at large scale demonstrator parts.
The results show the importance of the quantitative knowledge of the restraint conditions and the welding residual stresses on the cold cracking resistance.
Today’s light weight design trends lead to a growing application of high-strength structural steels (yield strength ≥ 690 MPa). The mechanical properties of the weld and the component safety have to meet the increased requirements of these steel grades. However, high residual stresses in welded components are detrimental to their safety and integrity. Analyses concerning weld stresses in high-strength steels welded under component related restraint conditions revealed that heat control significantly affects global and local stresses. This occurs especially in highly restrained joints due to superimposing local and global stresses and may cause crack-critical stress-levels. In this study weld tests were performed with plates of high-strength steel in a special test facility. The experimental setup allowed transferring defined restraint conditions to the test welds similarly to real components. Temperature and reaction forces due to restraint were observed online while welding and cooling of multilayer-component MAG-welds. Mobile X-ray diffraction was used for local stress determination in the weld seam areas of the restrained specimens. It was found that interpass temperature has a major influence on the local and global welding forces and stresses. Thus, among the analysed results especially transverse residual stresses of the heat affected zone were strongly affected.
The increased application of higher-strength steels and filler materials necessitates a more profound understanding of the interactions between the welding process, the heat input, the cooling conditions and the resulting metallurgical processes in the weid and its surroundings. Strategies, which help to improve the strength properties and life-time of welded stmctures to such an extent that the utilisation of higher-strength materials can be justified and their lightweight construction potential can thus be exploited to the füll, can only be derived from the interaction between all the influencing factors. Examples of a few investigations on welded joints between higher-strength fine-grained structural steels with regard to the interactions between the main variables influencing the cold cracking are presented in this article.
Based on the initial call in March 2024, an update time-frame is introduced on the working plan for a comprehensive review paper series on joining and welding technologies for the manufacturing of components and parts used in sustainable energy generation, conversion, and transport with focus on hydrogen and wind energy.
In situ chemical analysis of duplex stainless steel weld by laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
(2024)
The high corrosion resistance and good mechanical properties of duplex stainless steel (DSS) are due to its special chemical composition, which is a balanced phase ratio of ferrite (α) and austenite (γ). Many industrial applications require the integration of DSS components. For this, Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an excellent choice, as it allows an automated operation with high reproducibility. However, when the weld pool solidifies, critical ratios of α- and γ- phases can occur, which lead to solidification cracking, increased susceptibility to corrosion, and a decrease in ductility and critical strength. Previous studies have shown that these defects can be caused by the accumulation of manganese and chromium in the heat affected zone (HAZ), requiring ongoing monitoring of this accumulation. A suitable method for such monitoring is laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), which can be used in two operating modes: calibration using standard reference samples and calibration-free. Unlike conventional quantitative LIBS measurements, which require reference samples to generate a calibration curve, calibration-free LIBS (CF-LIBS) allows chemical compositions to be determined solely from the emission spectrum of the plasma. Numerous publications show that CF-LIBS is a fast and efficient analytical method for the quantitative analysis of metal samples. In this work, CF-LIBS is applied to spectra obtained during GTAW DSS welding and the result is compared with those obtained by PLS analysis. A good correlation was found between both types of analysis, demonstrating the suitability of the CF-LIBS method for this application. The CF-LIBS method has a significant advantage over conventional LIBS due to the rapid in situ measurement of concentrations of major alloying elements without calibration procedure. This, combined with fast feedback and appropriate adjustment of welding parameters, helps prevent welding defects.
Low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumables offer an innovative approach to increase the fatigue strength of welded high-strength steel structures. LTT welding consumables are characterized by a martensitic phase transformation near ambient temperature, which generates compressive residual stresses in the weld and heat affected zone (HAZ). The aim is to achieve a weld geometry, which generate high compressive residual stresses at the fatigue crack critical weld toe.
Longitudinal stiffeners were gas metal arc welded using a conventional welding consumable; the base material was a high strength steel S700M. A chromium-nickel alloyed LTT consumable was deposit subsequently just on front sides of the stiffeners. Different welding parameters led to varying cross sections of the weld. The residual stresses were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) in the crack critical HAZ.
When using only the conventional, the HAZ is characterized by high tensile residual stresses. The additional application of the LTT alloy leads to a significant reduction of the tensile residual stresses. Depending on the weld geometry, even compressive residual stresses can be observed at the weld toe
Low Transformation Temperature (LTT)-Schweißzusätze sind ein innovativer Ansatz, um Eigenspannungen in Schweißnähten zu reduzieren. Dieser Vortrag behandelt neben den Einfluss der LTT-Schweißzusätze auch deren Naht-Ausführungen. Die unterschiedlichen LTT-Nahtgeometrien haben einen signifikanten Einfluss auf den Eigenspannungsabbau in der Schweißnaht und der Wärmeeinflusszone (WEZ).
Die additive Fertigung (AM) durch schweißtechnische Verfahren eröffnet vielfach ökonomische Vorteile für eine ressour-ceneffiziente Bauteilherstellung. Gerade hinsichtlich der Homogenität und Anisotropie der resultierenden Schweißgefüge und den damit verbundenen Eigenschaften gibt es noch offene Fragestellungen. Die Einstellung der finalen Bauteilgeo-metrie und Oberflächengüte erfordert den komplementären Einsatz abtragender Fertigungsschritte. Hochleistungslegie-rungen auf der Basis von Nickel oder Kobalt sind aufgrund ihrer niedrigen Wärmeleitfähigkeit verbunden mit hoher Festigkeit und Zähigkeit schwer spanbar. Eine gezielte Gefügebeeinflussung mittels Modifikation der AM-Schweißzusatz-werkstoffe und der Einsatz des ultraschallunterstützten Fräsens (US) bietet das Potential insgesamt die Zerspanungssi-tuation zu verbessern. Dieser Lösungsansatz unter Gewährleistung des Erhalts der geforderten Werkstoff- bzw. Bauteileigenschaften ist Untersuchungsgegenstand eines Gemeinschaftsvorhabens (IGF-Nr. 20.979 N/DVS-Nr. 1.3211) der BAM und TU Clausthal/ISAF. Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt Ergebnisse für die beiden untersuchten FeNi- und CoCr-Legierungen sowie wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen Legierungsmodifikation, entstehender Gefügemorphologie und Zerspanungseigenschaften der mittels MAG additiv gefertigter Proben vor. Das größte Potential für die Modifikation zeigten Zr und Hf. Die Zulegierung in das Schweißgut erfolgte durch Beschichtung von Massivdrähten sowie durch Her-stellung von Fülldrähten.