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Organisationseinheit der BAM
Eingeladener Vortrag
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Gefahrguttanks
(2016)
Given the frequent incidences of Non-Accident Releases (NARs) of hazardous materials from tank cars, there in an increasing interest in transporting hazardous materials in total containment conditions (i.e., no pressure relief devices). However, the ability of tank cars to meet thermal protection requirements provided in the Code of Federal Regulations under conditions of total containment has not been established. Also, the modeling tool commonly used by industry to evaluate thermal protection, AFFTAC, has not been validated under these conditions. The intent of this effort was to evaluate through a series of third-scale fire tests, the ability of tank cars to meet the thermal protection requirements under total containment conditions, and also, to validate AFFTAC for such conditions.
This paper describes the test design and planning effort associated with this research, including the design and evaluation of a fire test setup to simulate a credible, fully engulfing, pool fire that is consistent and repeatable, and the design and hydro-static testing of a third-scale tank specimen. The fire design includes controls on the spatial distribution and temperature variation of the flame temperature, the heat flux, and the radiative balance, to best reflect large liquid hydrocarbon pool fire conditions that may be experienced during derailment scenarios.
Using plastic jerrycans or plastic containers, dangerous goods are transported as air freight in commercial aircrafts. Liquids or gases can escape by leakage or permeation effects from these plastic containers. The German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) conducted prior research which showed that the lower explosion limit can be reached when transporting dangerous goods in sea-freight containers under normal transportation situations. The presented study is motivated based on these findings. The research objective of this study is to analyze the transportation situation of dangerous goods in cargo compartments of commercial airplanes. The scope of this paper is to present the experimental method used for validating a numerical model for CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations and to present some simulation results of the mass transport of dangerous goods in the cargo compartment.
The velocity profiles and the mass transport is calculated using numerical simulations and measured by Laser-Doppler-Anemometry (LDA) experiments. The mock-up is a generic model of a wide-body aircraft lower deck cargo compartment in a 1: 10 scale. Geometry, air exchange rates and inlet as well as outlet flow conditions in the cargo compartment are modeled using realistic boundary conditions. The commercial CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code ANSYS CFX 14 is used for numerical flow simulations applying RANS (Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes) equations and turbulence models. The turbulence models studied are the renormalization group k-e-model (RNG), the BSL-Reynolds-Stress model (BSL) and the SST-k-co-model by Menter (SST).
The flow measurement with LDA in the mock-up of a cargo compartment proves to be a feasible method for producing data to validate CFD simulations. Qualitative evaluation of the results shows a good overall agreement between numerical and experimental results. The experimental validation indicates that the implemented CFD model is capable of reproducing the flow situation in the model mock-up
This paper describes the testing methods used to determine the thermal properties of insulation materials and mechanical properties of materials used for the load-bearing structure for pressure tanks (up to 4 bar, relative) and cryogenic liquids (LNG, −166 °C to -157 °C at atmospheric pressure). Goal is to design a transportation tank that does not exceed 4 bars (relative) within 10 h, starting at atmospheric pressure. PUR-foam is a suitable material for the insulation. A 12,5 l small scale tank prototype reached 4 bar (relative) within 87 minutes, which is, regarding the influence of the size, a satisfying result. The mechanical properties change significantly at cryogenic temperatures. The bending modulus is similar at first, but decreases at a certain point by appr. 50 %. However, the maximum stress is much higher and could not be reached within this testing setup.
A simplified formulation is proposed in this paper to assess the proximity of the earthquake-related Perturbation frequencies to the natural sloshing frequencies of the liquid contained in vertical cylindrical tanks. The methodology is based upon an existing gravity-waves approach, which was developed for rectangular cross-section reservoirs, and is extended in this paper to analyze circular cross-section tanks.
The experimental outputs of this paper show that the existing methodology correlates at 100% with experimental data in the case of rectangular containers; while the corresponding average error in the case of a conical container and a cylindrical container is 7% and 9.1 %, respectively. The full diameter of the cross section was considered. The use of sovalidated methodology to full scale tanks, suggests that cylindrical vertical tanks with a capacity lower than 700 m3, could be exposed to a resonance excitation when subjected to
earthquake motions, regardless of the fill level.
Tanks with capacity larger than 700 m3, could be exposed to a resonance excitation when subjected to earthquake motions, regardless of the fill level. Further studies to assess the dynamic forces linked to such resonance and close-to-resonance situations, in a context of a standard overloading situation due to sloshing forces.
To reduce the emission of carbondyoxide (CO2) of combustion engines, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is used as an alternative fuel. LNG is transported via truck, ship or railway for long distances. Double walled stainless steel tanks are used for transportation, which are heavy and expensive. The vacuum insulation between the two walled structure ensures that the LNG stays liquid over the transportation time (boiling point of LNG: -162 ◦C). This causes a high temperature difference between the transported good and the ambient air.
A simplified tank construction is used to reduce the weight and price of the tank. Instead of stainless steel, glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) is used. The design is changed to a single walled construction with a solid insulation material outside on the GFRP structure.
Goal of this work is the characterization of a suitable insulation material and configuration as well as the analysis of the mechanical properties of GFRP under cryogenic conditions. Several experiments are carried out. Numerical models of these experiments can then be used for parameter studies.
The efficiency and safety of railway transportation depends on many factors and operating conditions, associated to the vehicle, the infrastructure, the operator and the environment. From the vehicle-infrastracture perspective, some influential factors include the dynamics of the vehicle and infrastructure interaction when the vehicle operates on curved tracks. Düring such changes of direction, the vehicle dynamically responds to the lateral perturbation, producing a lateral load transfer that represents an increase of the wheel forces on one side of the track, as a function of the train operating conditions and track design, including track's geometry and over-elevation, and vehicle's operating speed as well as its inertial properties and dimensions. In this context, the lateral load transfer superimposes to tangential steering forces, which are developed when the vehicle enters the curved track, and stabilize once a steady state is attained if the vehicle travels along a constant radius track at constant speed. The magnitude of such tangential forces depends on a variety of factors, including the yaw stiffness of the bogie, and the friction at the centre plate. While the friction at the
centre plate generates higher tangential forces on the track and a consequential greater rail wearing and lose of locomotive energy, such friction is also crucial to avoid the hunting phenomenon when the vehicle travels along tangents.
In this paper, a mechanically active centre plate is proposed, which increases the friction torque at the centre plate when the vehicle travels along tangents, and reduces such a friction torque when the vehicle negotiates curved portions of the track. Such conceptual design includes the principles of Operation and a needed preliminary
experimental model to assess the potential benefits as well as the feasibility of such equipment.
Greenhouse gas emissions caused by human activities remain one of the most important subjects of international discussions. The routine gas flaring has been estimated to be responsible for as much as 1% of global carbon dioxide emission per year. Gas flaring analysis is one of the key-interest subjects in remote sensing community. Some of the existing publications use remote sensing techniques with satellite imagery to derive information about flame temperature and further about to estimate the volume of the flared gas. The often missing element is an in-situ measurement analysis of gas flames, combining signals recorded by a camera on-ground and data on flared gas volume, temperature and gas type. In order to address this problem, an experiment was conducted, in which the gas flame was recorded by thermal cameras on-ground, simultaneously to an aerial survey and the gas flow was measured at the same time on-ground. The measurement setup was designed in cooperation between Institute of Optical Sensor Systems of German Aerospace Center (DLR) and German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM). Cameras recording in thermal and mid-wave IR wavelengths were used to record the burning gas on-ground and from the aerial survey. All the measurements have been compared and statistically analysed with respect to the recorded temperature. The purpose of the examination was to describe the signal changes in thermal imagery with respect to changes in energy, emitted by the burning process. This approach will allow for later calculation of the amount of energy in form of thermal radiation sent from the flame to the satellite.
Liquefied propane gas (LPG) tanks in a fully engulfing accidental fire experience a fast increase in internal pressure. The result is often a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE) that can result in a large fireball and flying debris over a radius of more than 100 meters.
In the last 30 years BAM has carried out more than 30 real scale fire tests on propane storage vessels across three test sites. The primary research goal was to identify systems that can delay or prevent a BLEVE. Early studies started with water deluge systems, and have since moved on to consider alternative protection systems.
It has been shown that an unprotected vessel fails within 10 minutes or less. Tests with different oil and propane fueled fires have given an overview on possible real accidents involving full-engulfing scenarios. LPG tanks of various sizes (2.7 m³, 3.6 m³, 4.8 m³, 6.7 m³) were used with different filling levels. Numerous protection systems, ranging from active systems like water systems to passive thick- and thin-film layers. Also, the degree of thickness of these layers was variated. Pressure relief valves (PRV) have also been investigated, both alone and in combination with protection systems.
This paper gives an overview of the work performed by BAM in the field of BLEVE prevention of protecting system since the last 30 years. It has been shown that e.g. with a full applied coating degree on the tank with and without PRV can be reached an exposition in a test fire scenario a duration of more than 60min. For partly coated tanks with and without PRV the duration time is like an unprotected vessel. Furthermore, it could be shown that the active water system also protects with technically correct design.
Braking-in-a-turn maneuvers represent a critical operational condition for any vehicle, due to the associated longitudinal and lateral perturbations to which it is subjected, which maximize the load transfer among the different wheels, and result in vehicle´s poor lateral stability and deficient braking performance.
In this paper, a suspended vehicle supporting a partially filled 10 litter-capacity container, is set on a tilt table at oblique angles, in order to simulate a braking-in-a-turn maneuver. The measurements are assessed in the time and frequency domains, on the basis of the lateral load transfer ratio and the infrastructure fatigue damage. The outputs from the experiment show that the Minimum fill level (one-quarter), generates the larger lateral load transfer (0.45). Such fill level also causes the greatest ratios for the alternate stress over the mean stress on the infrastructure. The spectral analysis reveals the dominance of one of the sloshing frequencies during such combined perturbation condition.
Vehicle’s components damage
(2020)
The failure of vehicle’s suspension components has contributed to road crashes, while their defective operation can deteriorate the fuel efficiency of the vehicles. In this context, and when compared with solid cargo transporters, the road tankers would tend to produce larger roll forces during turning, as the curved shape of the liquid cargo container, shifts upwards the centre of gravity of the cargo. With reference to a rectangular cargo container representing the solid cargo situation, the increase in the position due to elliptical and circular tank shapes, can attain a value of 17% (100% fill, circular tank). In this study, experimental results comparing the lateral load transfer due to solid and liquid cargoes, indicate that the average force increase on the vehicle’s load-receiver side due to a liquid cargo, is 4.3%. To analyse the fullscale situation of both situations, that is, the higher position of the centre of gravity and the shifting of the liquid cargo, a simplified model is developed. The outputs from such a model when subjected to realistic operating conditions (speed
and turning radius), suggest that the higher position of the centre of gravity due to using a non-rectangular cargo container generates an average force increase of 4.9% on the side receiving the load transfer. The incorporation of the effect of the liquid cargo, through the simple pendulum analogy, suggests that such an average increases to 6.76%, with a maximum of 8.35% in the case of the elliptical tank at 75% fill level. It is found that the average liquid cargo effect is 5.44%, which should be compared with the 4.3% of the experiments. Road tankers components would thus have a relatively shorter load cycle life than those of the solid cargo trucks.
Several geometrical analytical tools can be used for assessing the potential benefits of any alternative tank shape. The quasistatic evaluation of the cargo-vehicle behavior represents a fast way to objectively determine the roll stability benefits of any potentially new tank shape. In this paper, the geometrical, quasistatic rollover performance of a convex bottom tank shape is compared with that of standard tank shapes, finding that in spite of the lower position of the cargo´s center of gravity in such a tank shape for the un-perturbed condition, it has the same performance as the elliptical tank shape when subjected to Steady lateral acceleration. That as a result of the large cargo´s lateral displacement. Consequently, the combination of a lower center of gravity for the cargo when it is not perturbed, and a Minimum lateral shift due to lateral accelerations inputs, define the conditions for an ideal tank shape.
Regardless of the mode of transportation, directional changes generate greater forces on the infrastructure as a result of the lateral load transfer and of the respective steering forces in the vehicles. In the case of Railway transportation, a concentrated damage occurs in the rail at the initiation of the turning maneuver, whose magnitude depends on the bogie´s yaw stiffness and on the level of friction at its centre plate. To mitigate such rail-damaging effects, some new designs have been proposed and used for the bogies´ wheelset. However, no new designs for the centre plate have been used. In this paper, a review of the causality for the forces arising during Railway Vehicle's turn negotiations, is presented, including the description of a modeling framework to analyze the influential Parameters for determining the magnitude of such forces.
The transportation of liquids involves several situations derived from the curved shape of the cargo containers, including a comparatively high center of gravity, which negatively shifts when the container is partially loaded, and the vehicle is subjected to steering or braking accelerations. Aiming at reducing these effects several experimental approaches have been applied, involving different tank shapes and the use of baffles, tested under laboratory or field conditions, at full scale or at a down-scale. However, the scope of such approaches has been limited, mainly because the potential effect of other components of the vehicle on the road tanker behavior, has been neglected. In this paper, a critical review is presented of the experimental approaches considered so far, identifying specific experimental needs to improve the performance of the vehicles, from both the road safety and the environmental perspective.
Externalities of the road transportation are multidimensional in nature and involve the road-vehicle interaction under different environmental conditions. Estimating the pavement and vehicle damage potentials as a function of the condition sunder which such interaction takes place, is important to avoid accelerated or catastrophic damages in these systems. Such an assessing is crucial from the perspective of pricing the effects of the vehicle on the infrastructure and vice versa. The existing models for pricing such interaction, critically depends on gross average statistical models. In this paper, it is proposed a deterministic approach to realize such an assessment, based upon validated approaches for the pavement damage. The simulation scheme considers different degrees-of-freedom vehicle models, and a discrete asphalt pavement, that make possible the simulation of massive traffic situations on realistic road lengths.
A testing methodology has been proposed in this paper, to compare the load transfer derived from solid and liquid cargoes when the carrying vehicle is subjected to a lateral acceleration in a tilt table. Besides the type of cargo, the other factors
(a) One-quarter fill level
(b) One-half fill level
(c) Three-quarter fill level
(d) Fast input
considered are the fill level and the rate at which the considered are the fill level and the rate at which the acceleration input is acceleration input is exerted on the vehicleexerted on the vehicle. The acceleration The acceleration input can represent the entering of the carrying vehicle into a input can represent the entering of the carrying vehicle into a curved portion curved portion of of aa road.
The testing device integrates the needed components to measure the fourmeasure the four--wheel loads of the wheel loads of the carrying vehicle, while carrying vehicle, while providing different times to attain providing different times to attain aa 10°10° angle angle for the tilt table. for the tilt table.
The performance measure selected is significant to assess the rollover trend of a vehicle, on the basis of the wheel loads at both sides of the vehicle. both sides of the vehicle.
The outputs from the experiments suggest that the sloshing suggest that the sloshing cargo transfercargo transferss the greater loads, the greater loads, regardless of the fill level and regardless of the fill level and acceleration rate inputacceleration rate input, as a result , as a result of the shifting of the center of of the shifting of the center of gravitygravity of the liquidof the liquid, and of of the the dynamic vibration at the end of dynamic vibration at the end of the perturbation input. In this respect, while the solid cargo the perturbation input. In this respect, while the solid cargo exhibits an initial peak and decay, the exhibits an initial peak and decay, the sloshing cargo exhibits sloshing cargo exhibits several oscillations of the saseveral oscillations of the same magnitude, which is attributed me magnitude, which is attributed to the to the liquid inertia and liquid inertia and to the to the reflection of the surface waves. reflection of the surface waves.
A further analysis could supplement this research, to assess supplement this research, to assess the effect of some other factors on the dynamic the effect of some other factors on the dynamic behavior of the behavior of the liquid cargoliquid cargo-vehicle system. Fvehicle system. For example, to analyze the effect or example, to analyze the effect of longitudinal baffles, and to validate theoretical models.of longitudinal baffles, and to validate theoretical models.