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Vom Baustoff zum sicheren Bauwerk: Einsatz der Schallemissionsanalyse in der Bauabteilung der BAM
(2013)
Seit 2006 wird die Schallemissionsanalyse (SEA) in der Abteilung 7 Bauwerkssicherheit der BAM genutzt, um Gefügeveränderungen in Betonen zu untersuchen. Dabei haben sich bis heute im Wesentlichen folgende vier Forschungsbereiche herauskristallisiert:
Hydratation
Während der Hydratation von Beton ist eine ausgeprägte Schallemissionsaktivität zu beobachten, anhand derer der Hydratationsverlauf nachvollzogen werden kann. Zur Aufklärung der Quellmechanismen der Schallemissionen besteht noch weiterer Forschungsbedarf. Des Weiteren kann mit Hilfe der SEA die frühe Rissbildung in Betonen, hervorgerufen durch autogenes oder plastisches Schwinden, analysiert werden.
Alkali-Kieselsäure-Reaktion (AKR)
Bei der AKR handelt es sich um eine Reaktion alkaliempfindlicher Gesteinskörnungen mit den Alkalien des Betons bzw. mit extern, z.B. durch Tausalze, zugeführten Alkalien. Dabei werden um die oder in der Gesteinskörnung quellfähige Gele gebildet, die zu einer völligen Zerstörung des Gefüges führen können. Mit der SEA können die Rissbildung detektiert und somit die Schädigungsphasen im Verlauf der AKR identifiziert werden.
Brandverhalten
Unter Brandeinwirkung platzt die Oberfläche gefügedichter Hochleistungsbetone explosionsartig ab. Um dies zu verhindern und somit den Feuerwiderstand von Bau-teilen aus Hochleistungsbeton zu erhöhen, werden dem Beton Polypropylenfasern beigemischt. Das Schmelzen der Fasern bei einer Temperaturerhöhung trägt zu einer erhöhten Mikrorissbildung bei, die einen Spannungsabbau ermöglicht. Die SEA konnte erfolgreich eingesetzt werden, um diesen Wirkmechanismus der Fasern nachzuweisen und weiter aufzuklären.
Ermüdungsverhalten
Durch die hohen zyklischen Lasten, für die Türme und Fundamente von Windkraft-anlagen ausgelegt werden müssen, gewinnen gesicherte Kenntnisse über das Ermüdungsverhalten von Betonen an Bedeutung. Mit der SEA ist es bei hochzyklischen Belastungsversuchen an Betonen möglich, den Schädigungsgrad im Verlauf der Beanspruchung zu bestimmen. Die Schallemissionsaktivität eignet sich als Kriterium, um die Versuche bei vorab definierten Schädigungsgraden zu unterbrechen und so Proben für weitergehende Untersuchungen zu gewinnen. Diese Ergebnisse sollen perspektivisch für Überwachungssysteme für Betonbauwerke unter zyklischer Beanspruchung genutzt werden.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a chemical reaction within concrete which can lead over time to cracking and spalling. Due to the complexity of the problem, it still causes damage to concrete constructions worldwide.
The publication aims to illustrate the interdisciplinary research of the German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) within the last 20 years, considering all aspects of ASR topics from the macro to the micro level. First, methods for characterization and assessment of ASR risks and reaction products used at BAM are explained and classified in the international context. Subsequently the added value of the research approach by combining different, preferably nondestructive, methods across all scales is explained using specific examples from a variety of research projects. Aspects covered range from the development of new test-setups to assess aggregate reactivity, to analysis of microstructure and reaction products using microscopical, spectroscopical and X-ray methods, to the development of a testing methodology for existing concrete pavements including in-depth analysis of the visual damage indicator and the de-icing salt input using innovative testing techniques. Finally, research regarding a novel avoidance strategy that makes use of internal hydrophobization of the concrete mix is presented.
ln most of the ASR-test procedures, the expansion of concrete or mortar specimens is used as an indicator to assess the ASR-potential of an aggregate or a specific concrete mix. For these tests, the specimens are stored in an ASR-provoking environment, where the reaction is accelerated by elevated temperature and humidity. To measure the length change, the storage must be interrupted for at least a few minutes. Düring the 60 °C Concrete Prism Test (60 °C-CPT), the specimens are cooled down to 20 °C for 24 hours, to ensure the same hygrothermal conditions for every measurement. This limits the number of measurements during the test period and may lead to additional effects, that probably influence the expansion development.
With a recently developed device, it is possible to continuously monitor the expansion ofprisms without interrupting the ASR-provoking storage. Due to the dense database of this automated test, the results can contribute to a better understanding of the ASR-process. This study compares results of the automated and conventional 60 °C-CPT. Tests of different aggregates showed, that the results of the automated and conventional test are consistent, but the expansions during the conventional test are generally higher. Preliminary results led to the conclusion, that the cooling for the measurements leads to additional expansions. Therefore, a modified threshold should be discussed for the automated 60 °C-CPT.
Baustoffe im Betonbau
(2019)
In dem Kap. „Baustoffe im Betonbau“ werden zunächst die Baustoffe vorgestellt, die für die Herstellung von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonbauwerken erforderlich sind (im Wesentlichen Beton, Betonstahl und Spannstahl). Herstellungsbedingte, typische Eigenschaftsprofile der Baustoffe werden aufgezeigt und ein Bezug zu entsprechenden Anwendungsgebieten hergestellt.
If the amount of sulfate within the mix design for concrete is not balanced, ettringite formation which first controls solidification continues while the concrete is hardening. Ettringite forms by reaction of sulfate contained in the cement or in some admixture with calcium aluminate (C3A) as cement component. The “late primary ettringite formation” promotes an increase in volume within the hardened concrete leading to cracks. To analyze the effect of substituting part of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by a treated brown coal fly ash mortar bars were tested according to ASTM C452. This test method was originally developed to extrapolate from the internal to external sulfate attack and is based on the idea that by testing a concrete mixture containing sulfate the process of deterioration is accelerated because it does not have to diffuse into the concrete before reaction first. In addition to the samples prescribed in ASTM C452 further samples in the size of the German SVA procedure were tested also designed for accessing the external sulfate resistance. The results show that while the replacement of 25 % of cement by brown coal fly ash leads to length changes around the limit defined by ASTM, the substitution of 50 % cement exceeded the limit by a multiple. The progress of expansion is the very similar for the two geometries tested. In-situ XRD measurements confirmed that while for pastes made of OPC the formation of ettringite is completed after 20 hours, this is not true for the mixtures containing the brown coal fly ash.
In a different study the effect of hydrothermal treatment on the phase composition of ultra-high-performance concrete was analyzed. The results show that the sulfate and aluminate resulting from the decomposition of ettringite are bound into new phases.
If this binding is permanent this might allow the larger use of sulfate bearing raw materials.
Basic oxygen furnace slags (BOFS) are by-products of the steelmaking process. Several researchers have studied the production of Portland cement clinker and metallic iron from BOFS via a reductive treatment.
In this study, we applied a carbothermal reduction of BOFS in a technical-scale electric arc furnace and characterised the clinker-like products. Those clinker-like non-metallic products (NMPs) had a chemical and mineralogical composition comparable to clinker for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and contained large elongated alite crystals as major component. The pure NMPs reacted more slowly and achieved a lower degree of hydration compared with commercial OPC.
If the reactivity of the products can be further increased by employing specific adaptations, it can be used as a full clinker substitute for OPC. Nevertheless, it is also an option to use the material without further modifications as a cement component or concrete addition, which contributes to the strength development in both cases.
Um den Abbau primärer Rohstoffe zu reduzieren, wurden deponierte oder niederwertig eingesetzte industrielle Reststoffe hinsichtlich einer höherwertigen Verwendung im Betonbau untersucht. Zur Bewertung des Einsatzpotentials als Zementbestandteil oder Betonzusatzstoff erfolgte zunächst eine chemisch-mineralogische und betontechnologische Charakterisierung der Materialien. Reststoffe, die die normativen Anforderungen hinsichtlich der Zementzusammensetzung erfüllen, wurden anschließend zu verschiedenen Anteilen als Zementsubstitut in Mörtel eingesetzt. In vergleichenden Untersuchungen erfolgte die Ermittlung der Frisch- und Festmörteleigenschaften.
Kalorimetrische Untersuchungen sollten die Auswirkungen der Reststoffe auf die Zementhydratation zeigen. Ausgewählte Untersuchungsergebnisse an Reststoffen aus der Industrieabwasseraufbereitung, dem Altpapierrecycling, der Biomasseverbrennung und der Metallurgie werden vorgestellt.
In recent years the German motorway network has seen an increase in the occurrence of damage to concrete road surfaces which can be attributed to the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). In view of the often drastically reduced life expectancy of road surfaces due to ASR, research activity in this field has notably increased. Alongside preventative measures in concrete technology, the main research focus up to now has been the development of performance-oriented testing procedures for ASR prevention. This included more specifically the accelerated simulation of climatic effects and external alkali penetration on road surfaces. The effects of mechanical pre-damage resulting from cyclic traffic loading and climatic impact had previously not been taken into consideration. Since 2011, the five-partner research group 1498 sponsored by the German Research Foundation (DFG) has been pursuing research on how simultaneous cyclic loading and external alkali penetration impacts destructive ASR in road surface concretes. The depiction of the myriad degradation and transport processes necessary for an understanding of these effects requires close interaction between experiments and their multi-scale modelling. This paper aims to focus on the aforementioned experiments by means of innovative testing techniques. The research is founded on a series of cyclic fatigue tests performed on large-format beams, both with and without previous application of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, with simultaneous tracking of crack development. Subsequently, smaller test specimens were extracted from the pre-damaged beams for further experiments. These included the spatial visualization and quantification of fatigue-induced cracks using micro X-ray 3D-computed tomography (3D-CT). Additionally, the effects of fatigue-induced cracks on alkali transport were investigated using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS). Subsequent storage of the small-format test specimens, with and without cyclic pre-damage, in an ASR-conducive environment then provided initial findings on the influence of fatigue-induced predamage on the ASR.
The susceptibility of different aggregate types used in concrete to ASR is strongly associated with their petrography. The aim of this study is to assess the influence of the aggregate size on the ASR potential, in particular applied to the sand fractions in the size range of 0.125-4 mm. The investigation concept is based on the hypothesis that at a specific particle size reactive aggregates could change their characteristic influence in mitigating ASR instead of promoting it. For the study of the size dependent behaviour mortars are prepared, considering aggregates of different reactivity, including very reactive, slow-late and quasi non-reactive types. The analysis is based on a stepwise substitution concept, in which mortars with a constant overall grain size distribution are compared, while only one size fraction of the non-reactive base aggregate is substituted by a reactive aggregate type of this specific size fraction. For the expansion experiments an accelerated mortar bar test (80°C, immersed in NaOH solution) was applied. The results show that the slow-late reactive greywacke yielded a strong reduction of the expansion below an aggregate size in the range of 0.5-1 mm. On the other side with the very reactive borosilicate glass, the expansions increased steadily with decreasing size. To validate if the acquired expansions were caused by ASR, thin sections were analysed. Mainly, higher expansion values were consistent with extensively more amounts of ASR indicators.
Thermal treatment improves the excellent properties of UHPC. Recent studies have shown that an increase in compressive strength of more than 30 % is possible. However, the accurate conditions of thermal treatment for a maximal strength are considered as yet undetermined. A multitude of parameters can be varied: temperature, pressure, water saturation, and duration of the process steps. These parameters influence the phase development and in consequence the macroscopic properties of UHPC. The primary objective of the presented study was the optimisation of the conditions for thermal treatment, concerning compressive strength. It focuses on pre-storage time and duration of the treatment at defined temperatures and pressures (90 °C and 185 °C/1.1MPa).
As expected, experimental results showed a fundamental change of phase composition in hydrothermally treated UHPC in comparison to standard cured UHPC: Ettringite decomposes at higher temperatures and is absent after thermal treatment; the amount of portlandite and clinker phases decreases. The change of phase composition is accompanied by increased compressive strength.
Experimental studies of calcium-silicate-systems at hydrothermal conditions predict the formation of the crystalline C-S-H phase tobermorite. In fact, this is a typical phase occurring in other hydrothermally treated calcium-silicate-systems like Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC). Commonly, high strength is attributed to the presence of tobermorite; however, in the presented study tobermorite was not detected in the hydrothermally treated UHPC. Therefore, tobermorite cannot be responsible for the increased strength of hydrothermally treated UHPC.
In conclusion the development of phases and strength of UHPC at hydrothermal conditions differs fundamentally from AAC and the experimental studies with water saturation. Results of these systems cannot be transferred to UHPC. In thermally treated UHPC, the hydration of clinker is enhanced and the puzzolanic reaction is intensified. Hence, more C-S-H is formed that fills pores and cracks, leading to a denser structure and finally to higher strength.