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Human perception of images
(2005)
Abweichend von der gängigen Vorgehensweise, mit einem Bleistiftstrahl
die Lage eines Bildpunktes festzulegen und die rückgestreute Strahlung großflächig aufzunehmen, bietet die neu entwickelte Kamera Unabhängigkeit von Einstrahl- und Blickrichtung. Ausgestattet mit einer 'Optik' für hochenergetische Strahlung, wie die bereits beschriebene Schlitzblendenkamera, ist die variable Gestaltung von Einstrahl- und Blickrichtung möglich. Damit eröffnet sich die
Chance, Strahlung absorbierende Details in einem Objekt sichtbar werden zu lassen, die sonst von einer streuenden Umgebung überstrahlt würden. Zudem wird gezeigt, wie sich das Erscheinungsbild von Objekten umgebungsbedingt im Rückstreubild ändern kann.
Für die öffentliche Sicherheit wird gesorgt, indem Gefahren rechtzeitig entdeckt werden. Deren Ursprung kann im technischen oder menschlichen Versagen liegen, womit im englischen Sprachraum zwischen 'Safety' und 'Security' unterschieden wird. Hinsichtlich der Folgen verschwimmt aber dieser Unterschied, obwohl für deren Verhinderung unterschiedliche Zuständigkeiten existieren. Bezüglich des gemeinsamen Interesses und auch überlappender Methoden und Vorgehensweisen würden beide Seiten gewinnen können, wenn es eine Brücke zwischen ihnen gäbe. Eine solche zu schaffen hat sich die EFNDT Arbeitsgruppe (Working Group) 5 zur Aufgabe gestellt. Gestaltet werden soll sie durch gemeinsame Veranstaltungen und Seminaren, die zur Bildung von Konsortien und der Durchführung gemeinsamer Projekte führen sollen.
Verleimte Holzproben wurden je nach Größe mit thermischen (ANTARES) bzw. schnellen Neutronen (NECTAR) an der Forschungs-Neutronenquelle Heinz Maier-Leibnitz (FRM II) der Technischen Universität München in Garching untersucht. Entweder ließen die durchstrahlbare Schichtdicke oder die eingeschränkte Strahlgeometrie es nicht zu, das Probenteil allseitig zu durchstrahlen.
Um dennoch innere Strukturen wie Leimschichten zumindest mit einem eingeschränkten Winkelbereich tomographisch darzustellen, wurde mit Hilfe des Slice-Theorems erfolgreich rekonstruiert. Ein Brett von 2 cm Dicke wurde mit thermischen Neutronen erfolgreich untersucht, ein größeres mit schnellen.
Neutrons are absorbed particularly by hydrogen containing materials so
they can be used as a tool for visualising heterogeneous density distributions of organic materials. Penetration limits are set by the layer thicknesses and the neutron energies applied. In case of specimens with a flat shape the situation may be encountered that the object only could be penetrated in selected directions. In addition, the overall size may exceed the beam diameter and thus the viewing window if a certain region of interest should be studied by tomography without destroying the integrity of the specimen.
This study shows the capabilities and limits of thermal and fast neutrons to investigate flat wooden specimens such as boards and girders by neutron tomography under such circumstances. Taking projections was impaired either by the limits of penetrability or by the total size of the object. As a consequence, projections were included for reconstruction only from a limited angular range of 90°. It could be shown that an approach based on the slice theorem was capable to visualise structural features along the beam directions while simply omitting the perpendicular ones without causing additional artefacts.
Small samples with a thickness of up to 2 cm but several times broader could be studied with the ANTARES facility of the FRM II neutron source in Garching providing thermal neutrons while larger objects required a beam of higher energy as available in the NECTAR facility of the same institution. The fast (fission) neutrons (1.5 – 2 MeV) of this site allowed investigating an area of interest inside a girder with a cross section of 23.5 x 49 cm². Internal features such as inclusions could be detected as well as a heterogeneous density distribution in glue layers.
Reducing risks and confining them to an acceptable level can be regarded as an essential commitment of technical applications for safety purposes and the public security measures.
Rating the efficiency of such measures requires an assessment of the risk that is supposed to be reduced. However, approaching this subject means to face a plethora of existing literature and an ongoing discussion if and how this can be achieved. On one hand, it remains a rather uncertain estimate particularly if it comes to rare interrupting events. On the other hand, making a decision responsibly requires a certain rational base. Several approaches exist for assessing risks, from verbal to quantitative, depending on the individual case. The frequently quoted Delphi technique represents the verbal one, others such as the Bayesian statistics a quantitative one or the consequence/probability matrix in-between.
A problem remains with understanding probability. Even if an event is highly unlikely it may happen right now.
The ultimate purpose of digital image filtering is to support the visual identification of certain features expressed
by characteristic shapes and patterns. Numerous recipes, algorithms and ready made programs exist nowadays
that predominantly have in common that users have to set certain parameters. Particularly if processing is fast
and shows results rather immediately, the choice of parameters may be guided by making the image 'looking
nice'. However, in practical situations most users are not in a mood to 'play around' with a displayed image,
particularly if they are in a stressy situation as it may encountered in security applications. The requirements for
the application of digital image processing under such circumstances will be discussed with an example of automatic
filtering without manual parameter settings that even entails the advantage of delivering unbiased results.
Safety and security both entail freedom from danger, i.e. unacceptable risk, whatever the cause might be. This
entails an understanding of the term 'risk' that is broadly used in areas such as economics, health, insurance etc.
According a rather popular definition used in the economical sciences for a long time (KNIGHT), risk has a lot
in common with uncertainty while the former is regarded quantifiable and the latter one is not. However, it has
to be taken into account that there are other understandings of 'uncertainty'. Particularly encountering rare
events never experienced before and recent contemporary definitions are weakening Knightfs differentiation.
This is reflected in some recent standard definitions. Attempts have been made to define a risk as common as
possible covering not only societal, ecological and financial areas but also natural and technical, ones. This is of
particular concern in non-destructive testing. This raises the question how far this can be achieved in a common
understanding, i.e. the discussion on this term seems not at all finished yet.
It is a common ambition to lower the risk by several actions including detection technologies. This entails that a
risk could be estimated somehow. The existence of numerous approaches indicates the complexity of this question.
The EFNDT (European Federation for Non-Destructive Testing) Working Group 5 took a commitment
also to tackle this central aspect of safety and security in its understanding as a bridging forum between these
two areas.