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There was a need to validate the longitudinal performance required for the cargo securement, as current standards exhibit differences. A model has been proposed in this paper, to simulate the effect of a shifting cargo on the braking efficiency of the vehicle. Results suggest that the braking efficiency can be greater in the case of a shifting cargo, as a result of the uncoupling of the cargo-vehicle systems, implying that similar braking forces are exerted on a reduced mass. The shifting of the cargo can occur as a result of the vibration of the vehicle, that leads to having a diminished friction force to prevent the shifting of the cargo.
Effective assessment and management of railway infrastructure for competitiveness and sustainability
(2018)
In this chapter the challenges facing railways have been illustrated through the description of two important events occurring in different geographical areas. While the explosion in Quebec, Canada, points out the importance of taking away the transportation infrastructure from highly populated areas; the disruption of the European railway network in Rastatt, Germany, describes the importance of designing alternative routes to critical railway segments, together with the need to have contingency plans to face extraordinary situations regarding the connectivity in a given transport network.
Future research efforts are recognized in relation with the railway car – track interaction, as the dynamic loads derived from such interaction could be reducing the life of such infrastructure. It is particularly important for infrastructures dedicated to the transportation of liquid hazardous substances.
The use of railway transportation for satisfying the transport needs of goods in Mexico is less intense than in developed countries, such as Germany. Mexican performance measures based upon the railway length per capita (intensity), or the railway length per square km of the country surface (density), are well behind from corresponding indicators for Germany, in such a way that the length of the railway infrastructure of Mexico should be, at least, doubled in order to reach a comparable intensity rate as that of Germany. In this paper, the benefits from transferring the whole transportation of goods from road to railway, is discussed. The benefits include a remarkable reduction in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. The feasibility for the electrical infrastructure to provide the necessary energy is further shown, while the economic feasibility of such situation is analyzed on the basis of the federal budget of Mexico. According to these estimations, the investment in railway infrastructure is feasible, while the electrical installed capacity is enough to satisfy an all-electric system.
Regardless of the mode of transportation, directional changes generate greater forces on the infrastructure as a result of the lateral load transfer and of the respective steering forces in the vehicles. In the case of Railway transportation, a concentrated damage occurs in the rail at the initiation of the turning maneuver, whose magnitude depends on the bogie´s yaw stiffness and on the level of friction at its centre plate. To mitigate such rail-damaging effects, some new designs have been proposed and used for the bogies´ wheelset. However, no new designs for the centre plate have been used. In this paper, a review of the causality for the forces arising during Railway Vehicle's turn negotiations, is presented, including the description of a modeling framework to analyze the influential Parameters for determining the magnitude of such forces.
The efficiency and safety of railway transportation depend both on numerous factors linked to the vehicle, the infrastructure, the operator and the environment. Curved tracks are subjected to demanding situations due to elevated stress levels, as a function of the operating conditions and vehicle/infrastructure design. In such segments, steering forces are superimposed to lateral load transfers. The steering forces depend on the condition and the design of the centre plate and bogies’ suspensions design. While the friction at the centre plate provides the needed damping to mitigate the hunting vibration of the bogie in straight track segments, such yaw resistance originates high steering forces and rail damage on curved tracks. A centre plate with low friction at turns and high friction at straight track segments would thus be highly advantageous. In this paper, a centre plate design is proposed which provides a yaw-rotation resistance torque that depends on the bogie-car relative position. Two different designs are considered for that purpose, one that combines a spring-acted centring mechanism with a lower pair kinematics, while the other one involves higher kinematic pairs which should incorporate lateral damping elements. As a result of using an engineering design approach, the higher kinematic pairs-based design is recommended however, the validation of such operational principles, including the introduction of the needed damping, should be configured on the basis of experimental models.
Liquid cargo has a significant impact on the interface wheel-track interaction. The sloshing affects the track-railcar's dynamic behavior. The effect is detectable at the track level and at the vehicle. Its characterization requires the combination of different techniques:
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD)
Time-Frequency Maps
Sloshing occurred when significant perturbations happened in the railcar:
The railcar entered a curve
Reduction in its travel speed
A railcar with a tank is a clear example of a multibody dynamic system with a nonlinear behavior.
This paper presents the study of the impact caused by a liquid Cargo on a railway infrastructure. The dynamic behavior of a tank car corresponds to a multibody dynamic system with several degrees of freedom. This study’s data were obtained from a scale experimental fixture consisting of a track and a railcar with a tank. The track was instrumented with strain gauges and the railcar with accelerometers. The data showed non-periodic and periodic terms; therefore, the results were analyzed with the Empirical Mode Decomposition method (EMD).
It was found that the EMD identified the signal components that were related to the sloshing. These components represent the mode shapes of the original signal.
The location of the sloshing in the track was found applying spectrograms to the accelerometer data. This paper’s experimental outputs suggest that the sloshing effect is detectable at the track and in the vehicle dynamics.
A preliminary analysis has been presented on the advantages for Mexico to migrate the cargo from trucking to railways. While the approach is highly unrealistic, it describes interesting figures that should animate the interest of Mexico to develop its railway infrastructure. Adverse situations due to the topographic characteristics of the mostly populated area of Mexico. The data presented in this paper suggest that the building of railway infrastructure is economically feasible.
A testing rig for the measurement of the dynamic loads on the rails due to cargo sloshing,has been proposedin this paper. The system represents a scale-down approach that simulates astraightening maneuver of the railway car after negotiating a turn. As part of the experimental effort, a mathematical model was developed that, oncevalidated, will provide more insights about the potential effect of many other cardesign factors, on the level of stress developed in the raildue to the sloshing cargo.A fundamental output from the testing, will be the objective comparison between the railloads due toa sloshing and a non-sloshing cargo, together with a validated model that wouldallow parametric studies in relation withthe potential effect,of several track and carproperties,on the magnitude of the sloshing forces on the rail.
An analysis has been presented pertaining to the use of a convex
bottom tank shape instead of an elliptical, for a road tanker.
Two analyses have been made, concerning the static and the dynamic
relative performance expectations of such tank shape when compared
with the elliptical shape performance.
The outputs of both analyses suggest that the level of average benefit
due to using the proposed shape, is around 10%, with a maximum
benefit observed in the dynamic performance in the case of the
minimum fill level.
Correlation between static and dynamic outputs. Manufacturing.
The potential benefits to the roll stability of a road tanker, derived from using a convex-bottom tank, instead of a concave-bottom one, are assessed. The convex-bottom tank consists of a modified elliptical figure to which the concave bottom is substituted by a convex one. The concave-bottom consists of an elliptical shape. Static and dynamic analyses are performed, for which the proposed shape revels enhancements on the order of 10%. The static rollover stability factor, and the lateral load transfer ratio, are used as performance measures for the static and the dynamic analysis, respectively. The dynamic analysis derives from a simplified model, for which the sloshing mass is substituted by a calibrated simple pendulum. Other potential benefits of the proposed tank shape are discussed, including a reduction in the aerodynamic drag, and a longer life for the vehicle components.
Longitudinal Load transfer light sensitivity to cargo type, fill level and the impact distance.
Maximum sloshing effect for the case of the lowest fill level 12
while for half fill level the sloshing cargo performs as a dynamic damper, with a maximum effect of 6 in the case of medium impact input
The sloshing effect for the highest fill level yielded a mixed output, with the maximum impact distance producing a positive but moderate effect.
The interaction between the sloshing cargo and the carrying vehicle has been predominantly studied from the perspective of road safety, aiming at characterizing the effects of cargo motion on both, the lateral stability of the vehicles and the respective braking performance. In this regard, one main issue is to objectively clarify the potential effects of the sloshing cargoes, when compared with solid or non-sloshing cargoes. While there are abundant theoretical studies about the comparative effects of one substance and the other on the vehicle performance, only few experimental studies have been reported with that approach. In this paper, the outputs from an experimental study involving the longitudinal load transfer of sloshing and non-sloshing cargoes, is presented. The longitudinal load transfer is characterized in this paper on the basis of the moment of the reaction forces at the wheel-support interface, with respect to the impact spot. Results suggest that for one-quarter fill level, the sloshing cargo produces an amplification of the performance measure (12% maximum) while at half fill level the sloshing cargo damps the outputs (6.31 % reduction), while at high fill levels, the sloshing effect is mixed, as a function of the impact input, from -1.1% at low impact distance, to +6.6 for large impact distance.
Wheel forces generate stresses in the rail as a function of several vehicle and infrastructure characteristics and operating conditions. The different components of the wheel forces develop strains in the rail which contain an elastic and hysteretic (irreversible) components. The irreversible deformations of the rail would be associated with locomotive energy losses. In this paper, a testing facility is proposed to indirectly characterize the level of stresses in the rail, in terms of the energy that is lost during tuming maneuvers. Different potentially influential factors are considered, including the friction at the Center plate, the wheelbase length, the distance between bogies and the radius of the curved track. The change
in the potential energy during a U-turn displacement is measured. In this respect, an experimental model under this operating principle, aimed at validating such a principle of Operation, reveals a significant effect of the friction at the center plate on the energy lost during turning maneuvers, and consequently, on the level of stresses in the rail.
Exposure of pressure vessels to fire can result in catastrophic explosion and escalation of accidents. The safe transportation of cargo in pressure vessels therefore requires knowledge of what will happen to the cargo in the event of a vehicle derailment or rollover resulting in fire exposure. The chapter presents an overview of selected testing and modelling work undertaken to understand the thermohydraulic processes within a vessel that drive pressurization during fire. A series of experiments highlighting the importance of adequate design and selection of protection systems are summarized. It is concluded that pressure relief alone is typically insufficient to prevent vessel rupture, but the combination of relief and thermal coatings can be effective.
In spite that transport activities do not represent the biggest contributor of pollutants emissions, their reduction has been a priority as some other externalities are associated to such emissions and to the transport itself. A crucial element to characterize the behavior of the vehicles against the environment are the losses that such vehicles exhibit in a passive way, that is, without any involvement of power conditions. The energy loses due to the rolling, the drag and to the friction in mechanical components, have been assessed so far in terms of the stopping acceleration when the vehicle idles on a ramp. However, such a testing procedure produces some uncertainties due to the dynamic conditions that are considered. To avoid such critical limitations, in this paper a testing procedure and facility are proposed, which are based on static conditions of the vehicle at the initiation and at the ending of the test, which are assumed to provide a better reliability to the testing. Some preliminary theoretical analysis should be made in order to validate the operational principles proposed herein for such testing facility.
Turning maneuvers originate higher forces exerted on the rail and the loss of locomotive energy, at a rate that is function of several parameters that influence the magnitude of the developed horizontal wheel-rail forces, including the friction at the centre plate and the bogie´s yaw stiffness. However, such a friction at the contact surfaces of the centre plate is needed to mitigate the Hunting phenomenon when the train moves on straight track segments. In this paper, a self-centering centre plate is proposed, consisting of a lubricated centre plate, equipped with a spring- and damper-based self-centering mechanism. Simulation results of the proposed mechanism suggest that the energy performance in turns of a train car equipped with such self-centering centre plate is comparatively better, as the peak friction forces linked to the dry friction at the contact surfaces of current centre plate designs, are avoided. The assessment of the hunting performance of the proposed device in straight track segments is proposed as the continuation of this work.
A facility is proposed in this paper to apply a selective carburizing process to the lateral faces of a railways´ head, aiming to increase its carbon content and to decrease the friction coefficient in case that the flange of the railway car wheel gets in contact with the rail during turning. Such a treatment would reduce the energy that is lost during the turning maneuvers performed by the vehicle, further improving the energy efficiency of the railway car. The facility consists of a furnace, which should be set next to the rails´ hot-rolling facility, in order to use the available enthalpy. The proposed furnace is equipped with what is necessary to avoid the decarbonization of the remaining rail material, based upon batteries of oxy-acetylene burners that are installed at the bottom of the furnace, on the opposite side to the carburizing surface. An experimental facility is necessary to validate the operational principles for the equipment proposed in this paper. On the other hand, a study should also be carried out to assess the effect of any rail welding process on the carburized surfaces.
A simplified formulation is proposed in this paper to assess the proximity of the earthquake-related Perturbation frequencies to the natural sloshing frequencies of the liquid contained in vertical cylindrical tanks. The methodology is based upon an existing gravity-waves approach, which was developed for rectangular cross-section reservoirs, and is extended in this paper to analyze circular cross-section tanks.
The experimental outputs of this paper show that the existing methodology correlates at 100% with experimental data in the case of rectangular containers; while the corresponding average error in the case of a conical container and a cylindrical container is 7% and 9.1 %, respectively. The full diameter of the cross section was considered. The use of sovalidated methodology to full scale tanks, suggests that cylindrical vertical tanks with a capacity lower than 700 m3, could be exposed to a resonance excitation when subjected to
earthquake motions, regardless of the fill level.
An experimental model has been proposed to measure the energy losses due to the centre plate friction. The physical principles of the testing are based upon the loss of potential energy during turning.
The testing rig includes a variable friction centre plate. A stick
slide model was proposed for the centre plate, whose results suggest significant losses of potential energy due to centre plate friction, around 20 %.
Turning maneuvers performed by railway cars, imply the development of steering forces at the wheel-track interface, whose magnitude depends on a set of properties and operating conditions related to the vehicle and to the infrastructure, including track´s turning radius and vehicle´s yaw resistance.
Yaw resistance integrates two components. On the one hand, there is the yaw stiffness, as a function of the different vehicle suspension components. On the other hand, there is the dry friction at the centre plate. Such yaw resistance of the car´s bogies, has a two-contradictory effect on railway performance, as a flexible bogie reduces the level of the steering forces, but at the same time, it increases the probability of having hunting instability. A variable yaw resistance, with high values at straight track segments and low values at curved tracks, seems to be an interesting design. In this paper, a variable friction Center plate is proposed, aiming at maximizing the yaw resistance on straight track segments, and minimizing such resistance at curved tracks. The conceptual design of this device is described, together with its ability to reduce the yaw torque. Benefits of this device, regarding the transport energy consumption and the magnitude of the steering forces, are estimated on the order of 1 to 10, when comparing the proposed design with the standard center plate design.
The magnitude of the steering forces at the wheel-track Interface depends on different properties and operational conditions linked to the vehicle and to the track, with the bogie´s yaw stiffness/resistance and the friction at the centre plate being recognized as the most influential vehicle factors. In this respect, the negative consequences of high values for yaw resistance have been recognized in terms of the railway accelerated deterioration and on the possibility for derailment. While some theoretical models have been proposed to simulate the effects of the centre plate friction on the railway damage, and experimental measurements have been reported of the turning resistance, no experimental data is available regarding the effect of the friction at the centre plate on the wheel-track forces. In this paper the conceptual design of a testing rig is presented for assessing such forces as a function of the center plate friction. The testing rig quantifies the effects of the friction forces developed at the centre plate, in terms of the loss of potential energy when a scaled-down vehicle travels downwards and tries to return upwards in a “U turn” maneuver. A simplified mathematical model is also proposed in this paper, whose Outputs suggest a significant effect of the dry friction on the magnitude of the steering forces.
Braking-in-a-turn maneuvers represent a critical operational condition for any vehicle, due to the associated longitudinal and lateral perturbations to which it is subjected, which maximize the load transfer among the different wheels, and result in vehicle´s poor lateral stability and deficient braking performance.
In this paper, a suspended vehicle supporting a partially filled 10 litter-capacity container, is set on a tilt table at oblique angles, in order to simulate a braking-in-a-turn maneuver. The measurements are assessed in the time and frequency domains, on the basis of the lateral load transfer ratio and the infrastructure fatigue damage. The outputs from the experiment show that the Minimum fill level (one-quarter), generates the larger lateral load transfer (0.45). Such fill level also causes the greatest ratios for the alternate stress over the mean stress on the infrastructure. The spectral analysis reveals the dominance of one of the sloshing frequencies during such combined perturbation condition.
The proposed mechanism is based on a cam design and is independent of any external energy source.
Conclusions
Issue 1: An accelerated wear tip of the cam shaped journal .
Issue 2: The spherical rollers proposed for the bearings would be underused, as the contact force will be downwards, and such bearing has supporting capacity in both vertical directions.
Vehicle’s components damage
(2020)
The failure of vehicle’s suspension components has contributed to road crashes, while their defective operation can deteriorate the fuel efficiency of the vehicles. In this context, and when compared with solid cargo transporters, the road tankers would tend to produce larger roll forces during turning, as the curved shape of the liquid cargo container, shifts upwards the centre of gravity of the cargo. With reference to a rectangular cargo container representing the solid cargo situation, the increase in the position due to elliptical and circular tank shapes, can attain a value of 17% (100% fill, circular tank). In this study, experimental results comparing the lateral load transfer due to solid and liquid cargoes, indicate that the average force increase on the vehicle’s load-receiver side due to a liquid cargo, is 4.3%. To analyse the fullscale situation of both situations, that is, the higher position of the centre of gravity and the shifting of the liquid cargo, a simplified model is developed. The outputs from such a model when subjected to realistic operating conditions (speed
and turning radius), suggest that the higher position of the centre of gravity due to using a non-rectangular cargo container generates an average force increase of 4.9% on the side receiving the load transfer. The incorporation of the effect of the liquid cargo, through the simple pendulum analogy, suggests that such an average increases to 6.76%, with a maximum of 8.35% in the case of the elliptical tank at 75% fill level. It is found that the average liquid cargo effect is 5.44%, which should be compared with the 4.3% of the experiments. Road tankers components would thus have a relatively shorter load cycle life than those of the solid cargo trucks.
Several geometrical analytical tools can be used for assessing the potential benefits of any alternative tank shape. The quasistatic evaluation of the cargo-vehicle behavior represents a fast way to objectively determine the roll stability benefits of any potentially new tank shape. In this paper, the geometrical, quasistatic rollover performance of a convex bottom tank shape is compared with that of standard tank shapes, finding that in spite of the lower position of the cargo´s center of gravity in such a tank shape for the un-perturbed condition, it has the same performance as the elliptical tank shape when subjected to Steady lateral acceleration. That as a result of the large cargo´s lateral displacement. Consequently, the combination of a lower center of gravity for the cargo when it is not perturbed, and a Minimum lateral shift due to lateral accelerations inputs, define the conditions for an ideal tank shape.
As a result of the vehicle – infrastructure interaction, both systems deteriorate. The development of performance measures about such effects, is critical to find ways to mitigate these systems deterioration. We propose an energy approach to such an assessment: The transient energy stored in the pavement. The transient strain energy stored in the vehicle suspension.
A testing methodology has been proposed in this paper, to compare the load transfer derived from solid and liquid cargoes when the carrying vehicle is subjected to a lateral acceleration in a tilt table. Besides the type of cargo, the other factors
(a) One-quarter fill level
(b) One-half fill level
(c) Three-quarter fill level
(d) Fast input
considered are the fill level and the rate at which the considered are the fill level and the rate at which the acceleration input is acceleration input is exerted on the vehicleexerted on the vehicle. The acceleration The acceleration input can represent the entering of the carrying vehicle into a input can represent the entering of the carrying vehicle into a curved portion curved portion of of aa road.
The testing device integrates the needed components to measure the fourmeasure the four--wheel loads of the wheel loads of the carrying vehicle, while carrying vehicle, while providing different times to attain providing different times to attain aa 10°10° angle angle for the tilt table. for the tilt table.
The performance measure selected is significant to assess the rollover trend of a vehicle, on the basis of the wheel loads at both sides of the vehicle. both sides of the vehicle.
The outputs from the experiments suggest that the sloshing suggest that the sloshing cargo transfercargo transferss the greater loads, the greater loads, regardless of the fill level and regardless of the fill level and acceleration rate inputacceleration rate input, as a result , as a result of the shifting of the center of of the shifting of the center of gravitygravity of the liquidof the liquid, and of of the the dynamic vibration at the end of dynamic vibration at the end of the perturbation input. In this respect, while the solid cargo the perturbation input. In this respect, while the solid cargo exhibits an initial peak and decay, the exhibits an initial peak and decay, the sloshing cargo exhibits sloshing cargo exhibits several oscillations of the saseveral oscillations of the same magnitude, which is attributed me magnitude, which is attributed to the to the liquid inertia and liquid inertia and to the to the reflection of the surface waves. reflection of the surface waves.
A further analysis could supplement this research, to assess supplement this research, to assess the effect of some other factors on the dynamic the effect of some other factors on the dynamic behavior of the behavior of the liquid cargoliquid cargo-vehicle system. Fvehicle system. For example, to analyze the effect or example, to analyze the effect of longitudinal baffles, and to validate theoretical models.of longitudinal baffles, and to validate theoretical models.
A simplified model, based upon physical principles, is proposed the simulate the effect of sloshing on the pressure developed in the tanker chambers. The model has been validated in good extent, with experimental data from full scale testing. The characteristic that mostly affects the pressure developed with the chambers of the tanker is the length of the chamber. While a reduction in this property could decrease the pressure developed within a given chamber, the analysis should take into account an overall approach, as a shortening of the individual chambers would influence the number of chambers necessary to carry a certain amount of product. Consequently, the resulting model could be used to study different effects of the sloshing cargo on the carrying vehicles, including the length and position of the chambers along the tanker body.
A dynamic simulation model for a tanker ship along the Rhine River has been proposed, based on a simplified computational scheme, involving a two-degree-of-freedom roll plane multibody system, subjected to lateral accelerations estimated on the basis of measured data. The resulting equations of motion are solved through the transition matrix approach. The results suggest that many contributing factors were involved in the capsizing of the ship, including the relatively high speed of the river water and the meandering path of the infrastructure, further affected by dynamic effects derived from the behavior of the payload and from the steering maneuvers performed.
Systems that assess the driving styles and provide a feedback about the driving style (ECO driving App; Ecological Drive Display on Dashboard). Smoothness of driving, with decelerations and accelerations in a given range. -The issue of safety Vs Eco driving –Keeping the right distance with the vehicle in front.
Figure 10 illustrates the theoretical results from the simplified model considered, together with the experimental data. These results and measurements are presented one next to the other, in order to facilitate the validity analysis of the proposed simulation methodology.
These results illustrate that the trends are comparable for both sets of data, that is, a similar range is obtained for all of the variables reported. A lower pressure is generated in chamber 5, which is attributed to the shorter length of this chamber. However, such increase in pressure does not correspond exactly to the difference of lengths, as the ratio of lengths would cause a differential pressure of 2.3/1.23 = 1.86, while the ratio of average pressures is on the order of 2. That is, there is an incremental, which is associated to the maximum height attained by the fluid in the chamber. The major difference between both sets of data, the experimental and theoretical, is that the theoretical do not include much of the noise and random oscillations reported in the experimental data. Such noise, however, is of very low amplitude, in comparison with the maximum values attained. The practical applications of these results could be in the area of chamber design, so that the effects of the length of the chambers be taken into account. That is, such greater lengths for the fluid in the chamber would involve larger pressures and consequently, greater stresses. However, the analysis should include an overall perspective, that is, the shortening of the chambers would imply an increase in the number of chambers, for a certain total payload, and the superposition effect of pressures, should be considered. On the other hand, the analysis could be extended to characterize the effects of the distribution of the lengths of the different chambers along the axis of the tanker, as the different resulting forces could have different effects on the pitch response of the road tanker.
Formulations have been assembled and (some) have been validated to simulate the potential damaging effect of a sloshing cargo on the railway material. Results suggest that: -Spatial determinism of the wheel forces due to sloshing, as a function of curve radius, distance between wheelsets and vehicle speed. -Sloshing forces can contribute in a significant way to railway material failure. Further analysis should be performed:-to validate these results (field observations)-to include a stress analysis of the potential effect of the yaw stiffness of the cars on the rail forces.
Comparative simulations of rail and road infrastructure with the transportation of liquid cargoes
(2018)
A simulation approach has been presented to analyze the lateral stability and infrastructure damage potentials of rail and road transportation of liquid cargoes. The normalized and comparative performance of both modes of transport, reveals that the railway transportation is, comparatively, more aggressive with the infrastructure, and less safe.
Transport safety depends in great extent of what happens to the cargo once the carrying vehicle derails or rollovers. The exposure of tanks to direct fire is a condition that potentially involves catastrophic consequences. Studying the behavior of the contained fluid under these drastic circumstances, is critical to develop methods and techniques to mitigate the serious consequences of many mishaps. In this paper, the experimental potentials of a Particle Image Velocimetry data acquisition system are described, for providing experimental data that could be used to calibrate mathematical models. As an example of the situations that need to be modelled, an experiment is described concerning the effect of the boundary conditions and protecting devices, on the rate of variation of pressure and temperature of the fluid in a tank exposed to a direct fire. In this regard, the results emphasize the importance of equipping the vessels with both thermal insulation and safety valves.