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Typical transport packages used in Germany are equipped with wooden impact limiting devices. In this paper we give an overview of the latest status regarding the development of a finite element material model for the crush of spruce wood. Although the crush of wood – mainly in longitudinal direction – is a phenomenon governed by macroscopic fracture and failure of wood fibres we smear fracture and failure mechanisms over the continuous voume. In first step we altered an existing LS-DYNA material model for foams, which considers an ellipse shaped yield surface written in terms of the first two stress invariants. The evolution of the yield surface in the existing model depends on the volumetric strain only. For the use with spruce wood, we modified the existing material model to consider the deviatoric strain for the evolution of the yield surface as well. This is in accordance with the results of crush tests with spruce wood specimens, where the crushing deformation was rather deviatoric for uniaxial stress states and rather volumetric for multiaxial stress states We rate the basic idea of this approach to be reasonable, though other problems exist regarding the shape of the yield surface and the assumption of isotropic material properties. Therefore we developed a new transversal isotropic material model with two main directions, which considers different yield curves according to the multiaxiality of the stress state via a multi-surface yield criterion and a non-associated flow rule. The results show the ability to reproduce the basic strength characteristics of spruce wood. Nevertheless, problems with regularization etc. show that additional investigations are necessary.
BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing is the competent authority for mechanical safety assessment of transport packages for radioactive material in Germany. The further development of state-of-the-art technology concerning assessment methods is essential for a qualified work of involved designers and authority experts. The paper gives an example of current development done to improve understanding and modeling capabilities of wood filled impact limiter. In order to reduce the loads applied to the package containment, which result from regulatory drop tests, most packages are protected by energy dissipating impact limiter. Wood, encapsulated by steel sheets, is one of the materials typically used for energy dissipation in these impact limiter. Very often, mechanical safety cases regarding the 9 m drop test are performed computationally, where it is essential to use reliable and verified computational methods and models. In this context, the paper presents an approach for a finite element material model for wood. Thereby, the mechanical behavior of wood under compression loading is the focus of the development work. Additionally, material orientation as well as strain rate, temperature and lateral constraint may vary. A large number of experiments, particularly compression tests, was designed and performed to establish an adequate experimental database for modeling verification. The experimental results enabled the derivation of necessary requirements: The material model has to take into account strain rate and temperature dependencies as well as the anisotropic characteristics of the material, a proper yield criterion, flow rule and hardening law. Such a material model is currently not available in established commercial dynamic finite element codes. Thus it is necessary to create a user-defined material model considering the mentioned requirements. A first step was done by determining a yield surface as well as detecting flow and hardening mechanisms from experimental force-deflection curves. In a next step the LS-DYNA material model MAT_75 was altered according to conclusions of former BAM development work, regarding the modeling of post-peak softening as a function of lateral constraint. Future research will contain the further development, implementation and verification of a material model for wood.
The material spruce wood is frequently used in impact limiters of Type B transport packages. In order to develop and parametrize an appropriate finite element material model, the crushing characteristics of spruce wood have been determined. A large number of crush tests was performed at BAM test facilities to generate a comprehensive data base. The parameter range in the crush test series results amongst others from the IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material: e. g., the minimum temperature considered was -40 °C and the maximum strain rate applied was derived from the 9 m drop test. Cubical spruce wood specimens were tested using a servo hydraulic impact testing machine for initial strain rates of up to 30 1/s. A machine for guided drop tests was used for initial strain rates of up to 133 1/s. Drop masses of up to 1,200 kg were therefore used from drop heights of up to 9 m.
The results presented in the paper include force-displacement characteristics and deformation behavior of spruce wood. Thereby the effects of strain rate, temperature, fiber-load orientation and lateral constraint are considered. Higher strain rates led to increasing crush forces, especially for loading perpendicular to the fiber. Higher temperature resulted in decreasing crush forces. The crush force level was significantly lower for load perpendicular to the fiber and the crushing characteristics differed compared to load parallel to the fiber. Without lateral constraint, the specimens expanded laterally, i. e. the plastic Poisson's ratio (if wood is considered a continuum) was not zero. Crush forces were comparably low and for load parallel to the fiber there was a significant softening effect. Lateral constraint of the specimens increased the crush force level and limited the softening effect.
The results of the crush tests are used to derive modeling requirements and some assumptions for the development of a finite element material model for spruce wood. Possible future research work is pointed out.
Packages for the transport of SNF and HLW are usually equipped with impact limiters to reduce the loads that result from the regulatory 9 m drop test. A common impact limiter design in Germany is a welded steel sheet structure filled with wood. The material wood is the main energy absorber, while the steel sheet provides the integrity of the impact limiter. The IAEA allows mechanical safety cases of transport packages to be carried out computationally, as long as the models used are reliable. In this context, a Finite Element (FE) modeling approach for wood and its application to impact limiters in the calculation of a 9 m drop test is presented.
A user material model for wood was developed for the dynamic FE-Code LS-DYNA. Its features are based on a series of crush tests with spruce wood specimens. The model considers wood as a material with transversely isotropic properties, i.e. in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the fiber. The plastic material behavior depends on the state of stress. This has shown to be important to account for the lateral constraint of wood in impact limiters resulting from steel sheet encapsulation. Lateral constraint or respectively, a multiaxial stress state, increases the compression strength level of wood, limits the softening effect and increases the hardening effect. Lateral constraint also increases volumetric and reduces deviatoric deformation. The wood material model considers various hardening and softening characteristics via input flow curves. It considers effects of temperature and strain rate on strength as well. The development of a multi-surface yield criterion and a plastic potential that enables the user input of plastic Poisson's ratios were the challenges during the development of material model.
A dynamic FE calculation of a horizontal drop test with an 18,000 kg test package was performed. The wood material model was used to model the wooden impact limiter inlays. The impact limiter deformation and the package deceleration were compared to the experimental drop test results to rate the performance of the wood material model.
Fichtenholz wird häufig als energieabsorbierendes Material in Stoßdämpfern von Transportbehältern für radioaktive Stoffe eingesetzt. Bei der vorgeschriebenen Fallprüfung aus 9 m Höhe auf ein unnachgiebiges Fundament erfährt das Fichtenholz im Stoßdämpfer eine dynamische Druckbelastung, wobei die seitliche Ausdehnung durch eine Blechkapselung eingeschränkt ist. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, auf der Grundlage einer experimentellen Charakterisierung ein Materialmodell für Fichtenholz zur Berechnung solcher Lastfälle zur Verfügung zu stellen. Die experimentellen Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung von Fichtenholz bestanden aus ca. 600 Druckversuchen an würfelförmigen Fichtenholzproben mit einem Stauchgrad von bis zu 70 %. Das Material wurde dabei als transversal isotrop angenommen. Insbesondere die Querdehnungsbehinderung konnte als ein relevanter Einflussfaktor auf die Materialcharakteristik identifiziert werden: Ohne Querdehnungsbehinderung dehnt sich das Material sowohl bei Last parallel als auch senkrecht zur Faser stark seitlich aus. Die Druckkraft- Verformungs-Verläufe weisen ein vergleichsweise geringes Kraftniveau und keine bzw. eine kaum ausgeprägte Verfestigung auf. Parallel zur Faser findet außerdem nach dem linear-elastischen Bereich eine starke Entfestigung statt. Eine Behinderung der Querdehnung führt zu einem deutlichen Anstieg des Druckkraftniveaus, einer stark ausgeprägten Verfestigung und lateral wirkenden Kräften. Die Entfestigung bei Last parallel zur Faser ist vergleichsweise gering ausgeprägt. Dehnrate und Temperatur haben festigkeitssteigernde bzw. festigkeitsverringernde Einflüsse, die im für Stoßdämpfer relevanten Bereich quantifiziert wurden. Anhand der experimentellen Erkenntnisse wurde die Hypothese der entkoppelten Fließflächenevolution aufgestellt, die von einer unabhängigen Festigkeitsentwicklung bei deviatorischer und volumetrischer Verformung ausgeht. Die Hypothese konnte mit einer Modifikation des Materialmodells MAT_075 aus dem FE-Code LS-DYNA bestätigt werden. Auf dieser Basis wurde anschließend ein transversal isotropes Materialmodell für Fichtenholz neu entwickelt und in LS-DYNA implementiert. Die Charakteristika von Fichtenholz unter Druckbelastung wurden in einer 15-flächigen Fließbedingung und einer nicht-assoziierten Fließregel umgesetzt. Die Fließbedingung berücksichtigt Mehrachsigkeiten des Druckspannungszustands durch eine lineare Interpolation der aus den Druckversuchen mit und ohne Querdehnungsbehinderung abgeleiteten Festigkeiten. Nachrechnungen der Druckversuche zeigten eine gute Abbildung der grundsätzlichen Festigkeitscharakteristik von Fichtenholz durch das Modell. Der für blechgekapselte Stoßdämpfer sehr bedeutsame Einfluss der Querdehnungsbehinderung kann durch die entkoppelte Evolution der Fließfläche angemessen wiedergegeben werden. Bei Last unter spitzen Faserwinkeln werden die Festigkeiten vom Modell jedoch überschätzt, was durch eine Anpassung der Druckfließflächen verhindert werden könnte. Die Einflüsse von Dehnrate und Temperatur können grundsätzlich nachgebildet werden, die verwendeten Skalierungsfaktoren sollten aber überarbeitet werden. Die Nachrechnung eines Behälterfallversuchs mit holzgefüllten Stoßdämpfern bestätigte die grundsätzliche Anwendbarkeit des Modells und zeigte plausible Rechenergebnisse. Für ein verifiziertes Stoßdämpfermodell sind weitere experimentelle und numerische Arbeiten erforderlich, wie z. B. die Untersuchung von Reibkoefizienten und Versagensparametern. Die Arbeit leistet mit dem transversal isotropen Materialmodell einen wichtigen Beitrag für die numerische Beanspruchungsanalyse bei der sicherheitstechnischen Begutachtung von Transportbehältern für radioaktive Stoffe.