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Ellipsometry is a useful tool for studying the optical properties of thin films such as photovoltaic devices. We employ Müller matrix ellipsometry to study the thin film photovoltaic material copper indium gallium selenide Cu(In,Ga) Se2 (CIGS), a commercially relevant material with high energy conversion efficiency. Confocal microscopy reveals an rms roughness of 68 nm, which greatly affects the ellipsometry data. Rayleigh-Rice theory is employed to account for the optical properties of the surface roughness in the ellipsometry experiment, and a library search method is used to compare Müller parameters calculated for various CIGS compositions, to the measured data. The Müller parameters calculated with the Rayleigh-Rice model are found to correspond well with the measured data, and a surface roughness of 37nm and a correlation length of 125nm are extracted.
Analysis methods and instrumentation for obtaining optical parameters and thickness profiles of thin-film samples from spectrophotometric and ellipsometric measurements are presented. Measured samples include thermally grown and evaporated SiO2 on a silicon substrate and a polymer photoresist layer on silicon. Experimental results at multiple sample positions give the thickness uniformity and optical constants of thin films. The thickness results obtained with spectrophotometry and ellipsometry agree within 1 nm for the 300 nm thick layer of SiO2 on silicon. For the 1600 nm thick resist sample the agreement of the measurement methods is within 8 nm. For the sample with a nominally 6000 nm thick layer of SiO2 on silicon, there is a deviation of ~100 nm between the spectrophotometry and ellipsometry results. As an application, the optical parameters of a SiO2 layer on an induced junction silicon photodiode are determined by spectrophotometry and are used to confirm earlier values and uncertainties of the SiO2 refractive index and layer thickness non-uniformity.
The present study investigates the use of imaging and mapping ellipsometry to determine the properties of non-ideal and patterned thin film samples. Samples which are candidates for future references and standards were prepared for this purpose. The samples investigated were lithographically patterned SiO2 and photoresist layers. The thickness and the optical constants of the two materials were determined using spectroscopic ellipsometry in the visible spectral range. On a larger lateral scale of several mm lateral resolution, the homogeneity was investigated using a goniospectral rotating compensator ellipsometer. A nulling imaging ellipsometer was used to determine the properties of the sample on a smaller scale of 25–150 µm.
In the search for highly efficient, low-cost, non-toxic, transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) suitable for large area applications for photovoltaics, ZnO and ZnO-related materials have received considerable attention. In the present work, Al and Ga doped ZnO films on oxidized Si substrates are characterized using mainly variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry; additional optical and non-optical techniques were employed to confirm and support the ellipsometric models considered. The samples were obtained by means of pulsed chemical vacuum deposition (CVD) and atomic layer deposition (ALD).
As known from previous studies the presence of dopants in ZnO thin films generally induce significant changes in the optical, electrical and morphological properties. We present our findings for a series of Al and Ga doped ZnO layers with different concentrations of the dopants, discussing their influence on the optical and electrical properties.
Maintaining a consistent product quality is critical for the thin film industry. Therefore, the development of highly accurate protocols able to detect variations and nonidealities in manufactured thin film devices is essential and helps improve production quality and decrease manufacturing costs. The present work will discuss the accuracy and reproducibility in the determination of the thickness of thin films relevant for optoelectronic industry using spectroscopic ellipsometry, starting with the importance of set-up calibration, the need for very well defined calibration standards suitable for real devices and not least, the importance of accurate data analysis. As ellipsometry is an indirect method and theoretical modelling is needed to obtain the desired information regarding the investigated samples (e.g. thickness, roughness, optical constants), the model uncertainty has to be discussed and taken into account. If for ideal samples consisting of single layers with well-known optical constants the determination of thickness and roughness is straight forward and pretty accurate, for real samples, more complex theoretical models are needed and extracting accurate information regarding the samples can be very challenging. With careful calibration and a multidisciplinary approach, a combined measurement methodology can be developed enabling reliability, comparability, and accuracy. For production-relevant operation, maintaining the ease of use and scalability of ellipsometry as a technique can also be retained.
The practical performance of surface coatings in applications like catalysis, water splitting or batteries depends critically on the coating materials’ porosity. Determining the porosity in a fast and nondestructive way is still an unsolved problem for industrial thin-films technology. As a contribution to calibrated, non-destructive, optical layer characterisation, we present a multi-method comparison study on porous TiO2 films deposited by sol-gel synthesis on Si wafers. The ellipsometric data were collected on a range of samples with different TiO2 layer thickness and different porosity values. These samples were produced by templated sol-gel synthesis resulting in layers with a well-defined pore size and pore density. The ellipsometry measurement data were analysed by means of a Bruggeman effective medium approximation (BEMA), with the aim to determine the mixture ratio of void and matrix material by a multi-sample analysis strategy. This analysis yielded porosities and layer thicknesses for all samples as well as the dielectric function for the matrix material. Following the idea of multi-method techniques in metrology, the data was referenced to imaging by electron microscopy (SEM) and to a new EPMA (electron probe microanalysis) porosity approach for thin film analysis. This work might lead to a better metrological understanding of optical porosimetry and also to better-qualified characterisation methods for nano-porous layer systems.
1. IntroductionPorous materials, especially porous thin films play an importantrole in chemical and physical technology in every case where thecontact area between two media has to be maximised. From cataly-sis to photochemistry and photovoltaics, the applications of porouslayer materials are diverse and numerous [1–6].The accurate and non-destructive characterisation of porousfilms for layered systems poses a challenge. This applies especiallyfor the key parameter of porous films, their porosity, i.e. the mix-ing ratio between the Matrix of the film (host material) and thepore volume which is empty or filled with a fluid medium (inclu-sions). This parameter influences most of the physical and chemicalproperties of a porous thin film and is therefore essential for theunderstanding as well as the optimisation of this class of materials.