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Paper des Monats
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Die Klinkerphasenbildung durch Sinterung in Drehrohröfen bei der Herstellung von Portlandzementklinker (PZK) ist gründlich erforscht und optimiert. Im Hinblick auf mögliche ökonomische und ökologische Vorteile befassen sich aktuelle Forschungsvorhaben darüber hinaus mit der Herstellung von Klinkermineralen aus Stahlwerksschlacken, die eine vergleichbare chemische Zusammensetzung aufweisen.
Neuste Untersuchungen zeigen, dass nach der reduzierenden Behandlung schmelzflüssiger Linz-Donawitz-(LD)-Schlacken und Abscheidung des gebildeten metallischen Eisens eine mineralische Schlacke entsteht, die unabhängig von ihren Abkühlbedingungen ca. 50–60 Gew.% des wichtigsten Klinkerminerals Alit (C3S) enthält und eine hohe hydraulische Reaktivität aufweist.
Die Stabilität des Alits auch nach langsamer Abkühlung deutet auf eine Stabilisierung des Minerals durch Nebenelemente aus den LD-Schlacken hin. Ein sinkender Anteil an LD-Schlacke durch Zusatz synthetischer Schlackemischung, die sich hinsichtlich ihrer Hauptkomponenten wie eine ausreduzierte LD-Schlacke zusammensetzt, führt zu einem Rückgang des Alitgehaltes und dem Zerfall der Schlacke beim Erstarren.
Conventional fertilisers have their disadvantages as nutrient release is not synchronised with the demand of plants. Several approaches of "next generation fertilisers" are aiming at controlled nutrient release. Recycling fertilisers are often not soluble in water but fully plant available. They are suitable raw materials for the production of new types of controlled release fertilisers.
Wastewater contains a diverse array of organic and inorganic compounds and its complex composition strongly depends on the location and the connected dischargers. However, municipal wastewater as a carrier of feces and urine generally contains considerable amounts of the main nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. The latter is in the focus of the discussions about the recovery potential of wastewater due to the relatively high mass flows of phosphorus in wastewater and the finite nature and decreasing quality of phosphate rock reserves. But due to the presence of the whole periodic table of elements, wastewater might contain further valuable components of interest for recovery including those defined as critical raw materials by the European Commission. Phosphorus and most of the other critical raw materials are fixed in the sewage sludge and after incineration in the sewage sludge ash (SSA). This is accompanied by high concentration factors from wastewater via sludge to ash. However, the mass fractions of the majority of elements in sewage sludge are comparable to those of the earth crust, indicating no relative enrichment. Nevertheless, enrichment factors of 100 or higher are given for phosphorus, copper, zinc, cadmium, silver, tin, lead and the platinum group elements indicating an anthropogenic input. An economic value of sewage sludge was estimated to $460,-/t calculated on the basis of the respective market prices for high purity elements – a theoretical value. A German survey of sewage sludge ashes showed that the mass fractions and the mass flows of most of the elements present in SSA are probably too low for an economic recovery. In most cases the mass flows are rather small compared to the imports and the chemical forms are not suitable for recovery. An exception is phosphorus that is present in high mass fractions up to 13% and that bears a high substitution potential. If the application of P-recovery technologies lead to a further concentration of valuable elements e.g. as by-products in side streams of the process, it would probably make also the recovery of other elements of economic interest.
The use of highly water-soluble phosphorus (P) fertilizers can lead to P fixation in the soil, reducing fertilization efficiency. Waste-derived, low water-solubility sources can potentially increase sugarcane’s P uptake compared to triple superphosphate by reducing adsorption to the soil.
Aims:We aimed to test struvite, hazenite, and AshDec® for their agronomic potential as recycled fertilizers for sugarcane production in a typical tropical soil.We hypothesize that these sources can reduce P fixation in the soil, increasing its availability and sugarcane’s absorption.
Methods: In a greenhouse pot experiment, two consecutive sugarcane cycles, 90 days each, were conducted in a Ferralsol. The recovered sources struvite, hazenite, AshDec®, and the conventional triple superphosphate were mixed in the soil in three P doses (30, 60, and 90 mg kg–1), aside a control (nil-P). At both harvests, sugarcane number of sprouts, plant height, stem diameter, dry mass yield, shoot phosphorus, and soil P fractionation were investigated.
Results: At 90 days, struvite and hazenite performed better for dry mass yield (70.7 and 68.3 g pot–1, respectively) than AshDec® and triple superphosphate (59.8 and 57.4 g pot–1, respectively) and for shoot P, with 98.1, 91.6, 75.6, and 66.3 mg pot–1, respectively. At 180 days, struvite outperformed all treatments for dry mass yield (95.3 g pot–1) and AshDec® (75.5 mg pot–1) for shoot P. Struvite was 38% and hazenite 21% more efficient than triple superphosphate in P uptake, while AshDec® was 6% less efficient. Soil had higher labile P under struvite, hazenite, and AshDec® than triple superphosphate by the end of the first cycle, while only the later increased nonlabile P by the end of the experiment (180 days).
Conclusions:Waste-derived P sources were more efficient in supplying P for sugarcane and delivering labile P in 180 days than triple superphosphate.
Verwertung von Klärschlamm
(2018)
Die natürlichen Nährstoffkreisläufe werden durch anthropogene Einflüsse, wie das Einbringen von Schadstoffen in nährstoffreiche Stoffströme, und die ungünstige lokale Verteilung der Nährstoffe (z.B. im Zuge der Intensivtierhaltung), erheblich gestört. Es sind lokale Unter- und Überversorgungen mit Nährstoffen zu beobachten. Gelangen die Nährstoffe in Gewässer, kommt es zum bekannten Phänomen der Eutrophierung. Hierbei ist der Nährstoff Phosphat meist der limitierende Faktor und es bestehen große Bestrebungen den anthropogenen Eintrag in Fließgewässer, Seen und Binnenmeere zu unterbinden. Der Schutz der Ostsee vor Nährstoffeinträgen ist beispielsweise ein sehr wichtiges Thema geworden und wird u.a. von der Baltic Sea Action Group verfolgt.
Weitere Auswirkungen des bestehenden Systems sind Entzüge aus dem Nährstoffkreislauf, wie etwa bei der Deponierung phosphor- aber gleichzeitig auch schadstoffhaltiger Klärschlammaschen oder bei der Mitverbrennung von Klärschlamm in Müllverbrennungsanlagen, Kraftwerken oder Zementwerken. Hier wird das Phosphat ebenfalls als Bestandteil von Aschen deponiert oder in Form von Baustoffen einer sinnvollen stofflichen Nutzung entzogen. Gegen diese Art des Verlusts von Phosphat aus dem Nährstoffkreislauf hat der Gesetzgeber mit der Novellierung der Klärschlammverordnung reagiert, die am 3. Oktober 2017 in Kraft getreten ist und u.a. Regelungen zur Rückgewinnung von Phosphat aus Klärschlamm und Klärschlammasche enthält.
Klärschlämme aus kommunalen Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen ab einer genehmigtenAusbaugröße von über 100.000 bzw. über 50.000 Einwohnerwerten (EW) dürfen nach einer Übergangsfrist ab dem 1. Januar 2029 bzw. 2032 nicht mehr in der Landwirtschaft oder im Landschaftsbau verwertet werden. Die Betreiber dieser Anlagen sind zur Rückgewinnung des im Schlamm enthaltenen Phosphors verpflichtet, wenn der Klärschlamm einen Phosphorgehalt von 20 g/kg Trockenrückstand (TR) oder mehr aufweist. Für Klärschlämme mit P-Gehalten > 40 g/kg TR reicht alternativ die Absenkung der P-Konzentration um 50 % aus. Die Rückgewinnung kann aus dem Schlamm oder aus der Verbrennungsasche des thermisch vorbehandelten Klärschlamms erfolgen.
Aus der Asche müssen mindestens 80 % des Phosphoranteils zurückgewonnen werden. Anstelle einer Phosphorrückgewinnung aus Klärschlämmen aus kleineren und mittelgroßen Abwasserbehandlungsanlagen (bis 50.000 EW) können diese Schlämme auch
weiterhin zu Düngezwecken auf Böden ausgebracht werden, sofern die Anforderungen und insbesondere die Grenzwerte der Klärschlammverordnung und des Düngerechts eingehalten werden.
In der Abwasserreinigung wird der Makronährstoff Phosphor je nach Typ und Größe der Abwasserreinigungsanlage durch verschiedene Verfahren der Phosphatelimination weitgehend in die feste Phase, den Klärschlamm, überführt. Dies geschieht durch die Zugabe von Fällmitteln auf der Basis von Eisen- oder Aluminiumsalzen, oder durch das Verfahren der vermehrten biologischen Phosphorelimination (Bio-P). Das Phosphat liegt nun abhängig vom eingesetzten Verfahren als Bestandteil der gewachsenen Biomasse, als gefälltes Salz, adsorbiert an Eisen(oxi)hydroxiden oder im Falle der Bio-P Klärschlämme auch intrazellulär in Form von Polyphosphaten vor. Weitergehende Informationen hierzu sind im Beitrag von Kratz et al. Pflanzenverfügbarkeit und agronomische Effizienz von klärschlamm-basierten Phosphor (P) – Recyclingdüngern in diesem Buch zu finden. Die Bindungsformen unterscheiden sich demnach nach Art der eingesetzten Technologie der Phosphatelimination erheblich und haben einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die verschiedenen Möglichkeiten der P-Extraktion und Rückgewinnung.
Carbonfasern sind äußerst stabil und werden auch in Anlagen zur Verbrennung von Sondermüll kaum zerstört. Beim Handling carbonfaserhaltiger Abfälle können Gesundheitsrisken auftreten (Abgabe von WHO-Fasern). Es werden Methoden der Verwertung carbonfaserhaltiger Reststoffe in der Pyrometallurgie diskutiert.
Für Klärschlämme existieren verschiedene Verfahren der thermischen Behandlung. Neben der Monoverbrennung werden Klärschlämme auch in Kraftwerken zusammen mit Braun- oder Steinkohle, in Müllverbrennungsanlagen und Zementwerken mitverbrannt. Eine Rückgewinnung des Nährstoffs Phosphor wird durch Mitverbrennung des Klärschlamms erschwert bis unmöglich gemacht. Aus diesem Grund sind zukünftig der Mitverbrennung Phosphorrückgewinnungsverfahren vorzuschalten. Neben der Verbrennung existieren alternative thermische Verfahren wie die Niedertemperaturkonvertierung, die Pyrolyse, die Hydrothermale Carbonisierung und die Vergasung. Alle Verfahren werden im Vortrag mit Beispielen vorgestellt.
Phosphorus (P) recovery is obligatory for all sewage sludges with more than 20 g P/kg dry matter (DM) from 2029 in Germany. Nine wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were chosen to investigate variations of phosphorus contents and other parameters in sewage sludge over the year. Monthly sewage sludge samples from each WWTP were analyzed for phosphorus and other matrix elements (C, N, H, Ca, Fe, Al, etc.), for several trace elements (As, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn) and loss of ignition. Among the nine WWTPs, there are four which have phosphorus contents both above and below the recovery limit of 20 g/kg DM along the year. Considering the average phosphorus content over the year, only one of them is below the limit. Compared to other matrix elements and parameters, phosphorus fuctuations are low with an average of 7% over all nine WWTPs. In total, only hydrogen and carbon are more constant in the sludge.
In several WWTPs with chemical phosphorus elimination, phosphorus fuctuations showed similar courses like iron and/or aluminum. WWTPs with chamber flter presses rather showed dilution efects of calcium dosage. As result of this study, monthly phosphorus measurement is highly recommended to determine whether a WWTP is below the
20 g/kg DM limit.
Phosphorous is essential for all living creatures and indispensable in its functions regarding bone structure, energy metabolism, and storage and expression of genetic information. It is removed from the soils through farming and husbandry and has to be replaced. Annually, more than 17 million tons of phosphorous are applied to soils in the form of mineral fertilizer worldwide (Killiches, 2013). In Germany, this accounts for 150,000 t/a. This fertilizer is produced from rock phosphate, which is often contaminated with heavy metals (Dissanayake et al., 2009), especially cadmium and uranium. Cd concentrations are around 30 mg/kg, U around 100 mg/kg, with even higher peak values. Since rock phosphate is treated with acids to make the phosphorous bioavailable, those heavy metals were also mobilized. When the fertilizer is applied to the farmland, the contaminants can pollute the soil and pose an environmental risk. Sewage sludge is another phosphorous source for farming. In Germany, 15,000 t/a phosphorous are applied to farmlands this way. However, there is a growing concern of possible environmental hazards since sewage sludge contains not only inorganic contaminants but also organic pollutants, especially pharmaceuticals and personal care products (Guardia et al., 2004).
More sustainable waste management practices are an important element in the Transformation towards a circular economy (CE). Activities in this area should be dedicated to all groups of waste, including those generated in the water and sewage sector. This paper presents the characteristics of sewage sludge ash (SSA) coming from Polish municipal waste incineration plants. Due to the high content of nutrients such as phosphorus (8.01% P2O5), calcium (5.11% CaO) and magnesium (2.75% MgO), the analyzed SSA may constitute a valuable source of raw materials for the fertilizer industry.
Despite the good fertilizing properties of the SSA, in some cases the presence of heavy metals such as cadmium (0.74–1.4 mg/kg dry matter), lead (49.8–99 mg/kg dry matter), mercury (3.93 mg/kg dry matter) and arsenic (4.23–4.43 mg/kg dry matter) and poor bioavailability of P from SSA disqualifies this waste from direct use as a fertilizer. Therefore, it is necessary to look for methods that will allow the municipal SSA to be processed, for example, technologies for the extraction of phosphorus and the production of phosphate fertilizer. This way of SSA management is in the line with the CE assumptions, in which waste becomes a valuable source of secondary raw materials. Fertilizer produced from waste meeting quality, safety and labelling requirements and limits of organic, microbiological and physical contaminants will be able to be traded freely within the European Union (EU) and receive the CE marking. The idea of use of SSA for fertilizer purposes is consistent not only with the objectives of the CE but also with the Polish National Waste Management Plan 2022 and the Municipal Sewage Sludge Strategy 2019–2022, which emphasizes the necessity to maximize the use of biogenic substances contained in wastewater. Therefore, sustainable management of SSA, in particular its storage in a way enabling the recovery of phosphorus, should be promoted.
Uranium and thorium species in phosphate rock and sewage sludge ash based phosphorus fertilizers
(2020)
Phosphorus (P) is an essential element for all forms of life and is thus often applied as phosphate rock-based P-fertilizers in agriculture to enable continuous farming. However, these P-fertilizers contain also hazardous uranium (U) and thorium (Th), up to 660 and 220 mg/kg, respectively. On the contrary, novel P-fertilizers made from sewage sludge (ash) contain only low mass fractions of U and Th. In addition to the total amount of U and Th in P-fertilizers, their mobility and bioavailability is important, which depends to a large extent on their chemical state, especially oxidation state and chemical bonding. Thus, we analyzed their chemical state in various P-fertilizers by U and Th L3-edge HERFD-XANES spectroscopy. Phosphate rocks and sewage sludge-based P-fertilizers contain mainly U(IV) compounds which have only a low bioavailability. In contrast, acidic treatment of phosphate rock to produce super phosphates lead to an oxidation to U(VI) compounds (including formation of uranium phosphates) with a strongly increased bioavailability. On the contrary, all analyzed P-fertilizers contain Th in form of strongly insoluble phosphates and oxides with a low bioavailability. Additionally performed water extractions and Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films (DGT) experiments support these findings.
Pot experiments are often performed to analyze the plant-availability of phosphorus (P) in P-fertilizers. However, these experiments do not determine the P compounds present in the soil which are responsible for the yield increase. In order to better understand the results of pot experiments we analyzed the soils by P K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy to determine the P species and unravel transformation processes. We carried out pot experiments with maize testing different waste water derived recycling P-fertilizers on an acidic and a neutral soil. Soils samples before sowing and after harvest were collected and prepared for analysis. A combination of macro- and µ-XANES spectroscopy was used to determine the chemical state of the overall soil P and to identify P compounds in P-rich spots localized by micro-X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF). P K-edge macro-XANES spectroscopy detected organic P and/or P sorbed onto organic matter or other substrates in the unfertilized and fertilized soils. In addition, µ-XRF mapping in combination with P K-edge µ-XANES spectroscopy evidenced that some P phases present in recycling P-fertilizers (magnesium phosphate and calcium sodium phosphate) react with co-fertilized ammonium nitrate and form highly plant-available ammonium phosphates in the soil. In opposite, apatites were not affected by the presence of ammonium. Thus, for a boost of the plant-availability of P in recycling P-fertilizers these fertilizers should be directly co-fertilized with nitrogen (N) sources that contain a high amount of ammonium instead of nitrate. Possibly, a specific preparation of NP-fertilizers by granulation of recycling P-fertilizers with ammonium compounds and a nitrification inhibitor could enhance the plant-availability of the produced fertilizer whereby they become more competitive to commercially available NP-fertilizers based on phosphate rock.
The leaching behavior of scandium (Sc) from bauxite residues can differ significantly when residues of different geological backgrounds are compared. The mineralogy of the source rock and the physicochemical environment during bauxitization affect the association of Sc in the bauxite i.e., how Sc is distributed amongst different mineral phases and whether it is incorporated in and/or adsorbed onto those phases. The Sc association in the bauxite is in turn crucial for the resulting Sc association in the bauxite residue. In this study systematic leaching experiments were performed on three different bauxite residues using a statistical design of experiments approach. The three bauxite residues compared originated from processing of lateritic and karstic bauxites from
Germany, Hungary, and Russia. The recovery of Sc and Fe was determined by ICP-OES measurements. Mineralogical changes were analyzed by X-ray-diffraction and subsequent Rietveld refinement. The effects of various parameters including temperature, acid type, acid concentration, liquid-to-solid ratio and residence time were studied. A response surface model was calculated for the selected case of citric acid leaching of Hungarian bauxite residue. The investigations showed that the type of bauxite residue has a strong influence. The easily leachable fraction of Sc can vary considerably between the types, reaching ~20–25% in German Bauxite residue and ~50% in Russian bauxite residue. Mineralogical investigations revealed that a major part of this fraction was released from secondary phases such as cancrinite and katoite formed during Bayer processing of the bauxite.
The effect of temperature on Sc and Fe recovery is strong especially when citric acid is used. Based on the exponential relationship between temperature and Fe-recovery it was found to be particularly important for the selectivity of Sc over Fe. Optimization of the model for a maximum Sc recovery combined with a minimum Fe
recovery yielded results of ~28% Sc recovery at <2% Fe recovery at a temperature of 60 ◦C, a citric acid normality of 1.8, and a liquid-to-solid ratio of 16 ml/g. Our study has shown that detailed knowledge about the Sc association and distribution in bauxite and bauxite residue is key to an efficient and selective leaching of Sc
from bauxite residues.
Calcium alkali phosphates Ca(Na,K)PO4 are main constituents of bioceramics and thermochemically produced phosphorus fertilizers because of their bioavailability. Sparse thermodynamic data are available for the endmembers CaNaPO4 and CaKPO4. In this work, the missing data were determined for the low-temperature phase modifications of the endmembers CaNaPO4 and CaKPO4 and three intermediate Ca(Na,K)PO4 compositions. Standard enthalpy of formation ranges from - 2018.3 ± 2.2 kJ mol-1 to - 2030.5 ± 2.1 kJ mol-1 and standard entropy from 137.2 ± 1.0 J mol-1 K-1 to 148.6 ± 1.0 J mol-1 K-1 from sodium endmember b-CaNaPO4 to potassium endmember b0-CaKPO4.
Thermodynamic functions are calculated up to 1400 K for endmembers and the sodium-rich intermediate phase b-Ca(Na0.93K0.07)PO4. Functions above 640 K are extrapolated because of the phase transition from low- to high-temperature phase. Impurities in the synthesized intermediate phases c-Ca(Na0.4K0.6)PO4 and c-Ca Na0.35K0.65)PO4 and one additional phase transition around 500 K impeded the determination of high-temperature thermodynamic functions. In general, data for phase transition temperatures agree with the previously reported phase diagrams.
Im Rahmen des EU-Projekts P-REX werden unter anderem die zwei thermischen Verfahren ASH DEC und Mephrec zur technischen Rückgewinnung von Phosphor aus Klärschlamm und Klärschlammaschen für die P-Düngemittelproduktion betrachtet. Die Produkte haben geringe Konzentrationen an Schwermetallen und eine bessere P-Löslichkeit als die nicht behandelten Klärschlammaschen. Die Klärschlammasche wird im ASH DEC-Verfahren mit Natriumverbindungen unter reduzierenden Bedingungen im Drehrohrofen behandelt. Das Verfahren wurde erfolgreich bei einem Demonstrationsversuch getestet. Das Mephrec-Verfahren ist ein metallurgisches Schmelzverfahren und wird unter reduzierenden Bedingungen im Schachtofen durchgeführt. Es ist eine Pilotanlage in Nürnberg geplant.