A comparative study on the performance of digital detector systems for high energy applications
(2014)
For cast components reaching or exceeding total material thicknesses of 150mm, high energy sources such as linear accelerators or Betatrons are required in order to obtain reasonable exposure times. In this study, the performance of digital detector systems, involving imaging plates (IP) and digital detector arrays (DDA), was evaluated with respect to the testing class B requirements as formulated in the standard EN ISO 17636-2. As a reference, traditional radiographic film and a Cobalt-60 source was used. With film exposures, testing class B was achieved with Co-60 and Betatron (7.5 MV) at longer exposure times. The preliminary results show that the testing class B was not obtained with the examined digital detector arrays (DDA) and the high resolution imaging plates (IP) , even at 40, 60 and 80 minutes exposure time with a 7.5 MV Betatron. Class A was achieved using high resolution imaging plates with optimized metal filters between object and IPs and a high resolution DDA with intermediate Cu filters. Class A was also achieved applying a DDA with lower basic spatial resolution than required by Table B.13 of EN ISO 17636-2, but using the compensation principle as described in this standard. The next generation of digital detector arrays might potentially be able to obtain class B performance with the expected spatial resolution and sensitivity improvements.
The progress in X-ray detector electronics (sensitivity and speed) allows meanwhile fast single photon detection by a matrix detector. Combined photon counting and energy discrimination is implemented in the electronic circuit of each detector pixel. The company XCounter developed detectors based on CdTe single crystals, which can be tiled to larger areas and have a pixel size of 100ìm. The largest area available in beginning of 2014 is 50x75 mm². These detectors have very promising properties, which make them very suitable for NDT applications:
1. A CdTe attenuation layer of 750 µm thickness allows efficient X-ray detection up to ca. 300 keV. In counting mode only photon noise is important; no other detector noise sources need to be considered. There is no Offset signal without radiation.
2. Each of the detector pixels has two energy thresholds. These can be used for dual energy imaging for materials separation. Also the suppression of scattered radiation by energy thresholding will improve the image contrast sensitivity. First experiments will be presented which demonstrate the advantages of this new detector technology over the conventional charge integrating detectors.
A challenge is the development of a modified detector calibration procedure, which becomes critical at longer exposure times.
Speicherfoliensysteme werden seit den 80-iger Jahren in der Röntgendiagnostik
eingesetzt. Die technische Modifizierung der anfänglich im medizinischen Bereich
genutzten Speicherfoliensysteme ermöglichte die Einführung der Computer-Radiographie
(CR) in die Digitale Industrielle Röntgenprüfung mit dem Ziel des Filmersatzes. Die Speicherfolien
detektieren im Vergleich zum Röntgenfilm einen wesentlich größeren
Dosisbereich. Die daraus resultierende Dynamik befähigt die Speicherfoliensysteme zur
Abbildung eines großen Objektumfanges und verringert zugleich das Risiko einer Fehlbelichtung.
Vor allem die Möglichkeit, unmittelbar nach dem Belichten das virtuell im Speicherleuchtstoff
gespeicherte Durchstrahlungsbild auszulesen, in digitalisierter Form im PC
zu speichern und auf dem Bildschirm betrachten zu können, verdeutlicht die Vorteile von
CR Systemen beim Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung. Eine vollständige Ablösung
des Röntgenfilmes durch digitale Techniken ist jedoch erst dann zu erwarten, wenn es gelingt,
eine Bildqualität zu erreichen, die besser oder gleichwertig zu der vom jeweiligen
Röntgenfilmsystem geforderten ist. Mit diesem Ziel hat in den letzten Jahren eine technische
Weiterentwicklung von CR Systemen für den industriellen Einsatz stattgefunden. Im
gleichen Zeitraum wurden mehrere Standards zur Bewertung von CR Systemen und zu
deren richtigen Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung entwickelt.
Heutzutage ist die Herstellung von Durchstrahlungsbildern mit einer entsprechend gewünschten
Bildgüte sichergestellt, was in den letzten Jahren zum verstärkten Einsatz von
CR Systemen in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung führte.
Im Rahmen einer von der EU finanzierten Studie (Filmfree) wurden anfänglich systematische
Untersuchungen zu den Einsatzmöglichkeiten und grenzen von CR Systemen für die
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnähten in Schienen durchgeführt.
Anhand der Ergebnisse ließen sich optimale Bedingungen und Strategien für die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schienen ableiten, die anschließend im vor Ort Einsatz auf der
Teststrecke der Deutschen Bahn verifiziert wurden.
Im vorgestellten Beitrag werden die Vorteile des Einsatzes von CR Systemen bei der
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnahtverbindungen dargestellt
und deren Verwendung unter realen Verkehrsbedingungen im Schienenverkehr beschrieben.
Es wird gezeigt, wie unter den bestehenden Fahrbetriebsbedingungen die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schweißungen in verlegten Schienen umgesetzt werden kann.
The research and development (R&D) in the field of safety and security of sea-freight Containers has gained more importance after the U.S. house resolution 1 (H.R.1). According to this law, all the freight Containers which are transported from non-U.S. port of origin to U.S. ports should be inspected 100% against explosive and contraband materials using non-intrusive imaging equipment and radiation detectors. As the port of Hamburg and Bremerhaven are the leading Container ports in Europe, it is essential to develop reliable and high-resolution detection technologies for the non-destructive inspection of large sea-freight Containers.
Radiologic evaluation techniques are nondestructive testing (NDT) used to detect the bulk of explosives and contraband materials in large objects. As compared to conventional low-energy (<450 key) X-ray imaging, high-energy (>1 MeV) digital X-ray radiography is required for the NOT of large containers because of the need for high penetration through thick materials, sensitivity, and the ability to distinguish between low-and high-Z materials. Mobile, high-energy, and high-resolution radiologic techniques are useful to detect contraband and threat materials in digital radiographic images of containers with complex packing. This paper presents a mobile, high-energy X-ray radiographic technique for the in-field nondestructive inspection of cargo containers. The developed experimental technique consisted of a betatron as a high-energy (7.5 MeV) X-ray source and a high-resolution (400 mu m) matrix detector for the digital X-ray imaging. In order to evaluate the detection efficiency and image quality of the measurement technique, a test specimen was proposed that was made of a 3 mm thick steel container with an inner dimension of 60 x 30 x 40 cm(3) comprising different low-and high-Z materials. Image quality indicators were used to assess the essential image quality parameters such as image basic spatial resolution, effective attenuation coefficient, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Experimental investigations were performed on a 6.1 m sea freight container with mockup dangerous materials in complex packing. Preliminary experimental results showed that the proposed technique was able to distinguish between liquids and solids, as well as detect contraband materials. Furthermore, a remarkable SNR of 400 was achieved in the measured digital X-ray images. The influence of temperature on X-ray radiation dose rate at different X-ray energies was also investigated. Finally, important applications of the proposed technique in the context of maritime security are discussed.