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Determination of residual stress evolution during repair welding of high-strength steel components
(2022)
During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable weld defects may be found. An economical solution is local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to high shrinkage restraints of repair weld and sur- rounding structure, high global and local welding stresses superimpose, and may lead to cracking and component failure, especially in connection with the degraded microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process. Component-related investigations of high-strength steels (FOSTA P1311/ IGF20162N) focus on welding residual stress evolution during local thermal gouging and rewelding. In this study, repair welding of S500MLO (EN 10225) is carried out using in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex- situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) to analyse strains and stresses. Self-restrained slit specimen geometries were identified representing defined rigidity conditions of repair welds of real components, which were quantified using the restraint intensity concept. The specimens were rewelded with constant welding heat control and parameters. Weld specimens exhibited significantly increased transverse residual stresses with higher transverse restraint intensities, in the weld metal, and in the heat affected zone. Transverse stresses along the weld seam decrease at the weld seam ends leading to different stress state during gouging and welding. XRD analysis of the longitudinal and transverse local residual stresses after cooling to RT showed a good comparability with global DIC analyses.
Correlating welding reaction stresses and weld process conditons for high-strength steel S960QL
(2014)
As a result of current trends towards lightweight design, a growing amount of high-strength steels with yield strengths above 690 MPa is applied. In comparison to the weld process of lower-strength steels, small working ranges have to be achieved with respect to a special microstructure and high yield ratio. However, the sustainable and economic application of these steels depends on the loading capacity and the safety of welds when designing weld constructions. For these demands, a precise knowledge of welding stress level and distribution is essential. Therefore, the present study is concerned with the interaction between heat control (interpass temperature and heat input) and local as well as global stresses in high-strength steel welds. Specimens were multirun welded under defined restraint conditions in a special test facility (controlled tensile weldability (CTW) test) to consider global restraint. For the comparison concerning local residual stresses, free shrinkage test welds were performed as well. The evaluation shows a significant influence of the interpass temperature on the global reaction forces. Furthermore, increased heat input and high interpass temperatures cause higher tensile residual stresses. This occurred in the weld area of both free shrinkage test specimen and CTW test specimen.
The application of high-strength fine-grained structural steels with yield strengths greater than or equal to 690 MPa expands because of present light weight design trends. The requirements regarding the welded components safety increased due to high loading capacity. This determines a sustainable and economic application as well. However, high welding residual stresses could diminish the components safety, especially due to high restraint conditions in component or repair welds. Therefore, this work is concerned with global and local welding stresses, especially crack-critical welding stresses in the HAZ and while root welding due to the restraint conditions. Restraint intensities of real components were analysed and realised with two different weld tests, alongside two different plate dimensions and steel grades. A comparison of the test results showed several significant effects for heat control and restraint intensity regarding restraint forces and local welding stresses. Among these effects, substantial influences were found for the filler metal selection with partially altered results for root and filler beads. Local stresses of weld seam and HAZ were affected differently.
Current efforts for lightweight design result in a growing application of high-strength fine-grained structural steel in modern steel constructions, e.g. mobile cranes, with yield strength from 960 MPa. The design of welded structures and the welding process become more challenging with increasing material strength due to higher elastic ratios. The formation of high residual stresses, which are able to diminish lifetime, load capacity and component safety, has to be avoided. Recent numerical and experimental analyses have shown a strong influence of the heat control and the rigidity of the weld on the welding stresses. Global reaction stresses due to an external shrinkage restraint superimpose with local residual stresses in the weld seam. Modern inverter technologies allowed the development of numerous modified spray arc processes driven by the power source manufactures with almost equal characteristics. They provide several well-known technical and economic benefits, like the possibility of welding narrower seam configurations. As a result a smaller weld volume, total heat input and, therefore, reduced welding stresses are achievable. This research focuses on the welding loads due to modified weld seams. The global reaction forces in welded components due to an external shrinkage restraint were investigated in a special in-house developed testing facility. Additionally, the superposition of the local residual stresses, global stresses and bending moments were analysed with the help of X-ray diffraction. The intensity of the restraint, the weld seam configuration and the weld process (transitional arc and modified spray arc) were varied for a statistical evaluation of the resulting welding loads. It was observed that under restraint a smaller weld seam volume affects reduced reaction stresses.
Present trends to lightweight design lead to an expanding relevance of high-strength fine-grained structural steels especially in mobile crane constructions. With growing material strength, the challenge for welding fabrication increases, since high loading capacities and safety requirements have to be accomplished. The utilisation of the high strength potential often requires complex constructions associated with high restraint conditions while welding. Increased residual stresses may occur due to superimposing reaction and restraint stresses, which have to be quantified and evaluated to ensure the safety and integrity of high-strength steel constructions. Particularly, the scope of residual stresses has to be taken into account for different effects in the HAZ, notches, weld and base metal. Commonly, conservative assumptions of residual stresses lead to distinct underestimations of the load bearing capacity particularly for welded high-strength steel constructions. This study concludes results of recent works of the researchers regarding the complex interaction among heat control, material and restraint intensity on the residual stress state in welded components. These analyses are extended by further experiments. Based on the obtained major effects, an approach for a welding residual stress assessment regarding component design according to prevailing standards for crane construction, an important application for high-strength steels, is presented.
In an increasing number of modern steel applications, high-strength structural steel grades are demanded to meet specifications regarding a high load-bearing capacity and a low operating weight. Lightweight design rules enhance the safety requirements, especially for welded joints. Besides a higher cracking risk for high-strength steel welds, the formation of tensile residual stresses might lead to fracture due to overloading or premature failure if not adequately considered. In this study, a stress-strain analysis was conducted at component-related structures from S960QL using digital image correlation while preheating, welding and cooling adjacent to the weld seam. X-ray diffraction analysis of the local residual stresses in the weld seam showed a good comparability with global analyses using either a DIC system or a special testing facility, which allowed in situ measurements of welding loads. By analysing two different seam geometries, it could be shown that lower multi-axial stresses arise if a narrower weld groove is used. Comparative analyses revealed a direct correlation of the local residual stresses in the weld with transverse shrinkage restraint, whereas the residual stress level in the HAZ is significantly affected by the bending restraint of the weld construction and the occurring bending stresses, respectively.
High-strength steels are increasingly applied in modern steel constructions to meet today’s lightweight requirements. Welding of these steels demands a profound knowledge of the interactions between the welding process, cooling conditions, heat input and the resulting metallurgical occurrences in the weld and its vicinity. Additionally, welding stresses may be detrimental for the safety and performance of high-strength steel component welds during fabrication and service, especially due to the high yield ratio. For a development of strategies to adjust welding heat control, all these effects should be considered, to reach a complete exploitation of the high-strength steel potential. In recent researches at BAM, multilayer GMAW experiments were performed with high-strength steels, in which cooling conditions and resulting microstructure were analysed for varied heat control parameters. The application of a unique 3d-operating testing facility and X-ray diffraction measurements allowed the analysis of local stresses in the weld while welding and cooling under component relevant shrinkage restraints. As a result, correlations between material behaviour, welding and cooling condition and the arising multi-axial stresses and forces were found. Based on this study, statements for the development of adapted heat control concepts were derived, which are presented by means of specific analysis examples.
The application of high-strength fine-grained structural steels with yield stress ≥ 690 MPa permits significant weight reductions and cost savings. Since welding is the major joining technology, e.g. in mobile crane industry, the sustainable and economical application of these grades depends on the load-bearing capacity and safety of the welds. An economical processing of high-strength steels is determined above all by the avoidance of cold cracking, apart from achieving demand-oriented mechanical properlies in the weid area. High tensile residual stresses are disadvantageaus regarding the cold cracking resistance and strength of welded components. Furthermore, high restraints commonly appearing in component welds increase residual stresses. Hence, in this research the influences of heat control on residual stresses and the overall structural Ioad of welded structures were quantified. The relationship between the weid thermal cycle and the resulting residual stress under additional shrinkage restraint was analysed by a successive augmentation of the restraint intensity. This was achieved by systematic low Ioad and component weid tests. lt was observed that the heat control significantly affects the local residual stresses and the overall structural Ioad of welded structures. A high interpass temperature increases the global and local welding stresses in particular. Moreover, the transferability of experimental welding results obtained from small specimens according to applicable codes to real component geometries was investigated. With the help of these findings it is possible to improve existing heat control concepts for high-strength steel welding.
For the performance of high-strength steel welds by means of load bearing capacity and safety, the information about stress level and distribution due to welding is needed. The interaction between the filler material grade (strength) and heat input on the reaction stresses in high-strength steels, welded under defined restraint conditions were analysed. Butt welds were joined by a multilayer GMAW process in the Instrumented Restraint Cracking test facility (IRC-test). This test facility allowed a defined restraint and, simultaneously, an in-situ analysis of the reaction stresses while welding and cooling. The reaction force build-up of the weld tests showed a significant influence of the used filler materials according to the heat input. Higher strength filler material grades cause a decrease of the welding stresses compared to lower strength grades, if a low heat input is used. The different stress build-up is described in detail for the root welds, filler layers and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature. Residual stresses in the weld, HAZ and base material were measured in loaded and unloaded condition using the incremental hole drilling method.
Today, an expanding application of high-strength steels in modern welded constructions can be observed. The economical use of these steel grades largely depends on the strength and reliability of the weldments. Therefore, the special microstructure and mechanical properties of these grades have to be taken into account by keener working ranges regarding the welding parameters.
However, performance and safety of welded components are strongly affected by the stresses occurring during and after welding fabrication locally in the weld seam and globally in the whole component, especially if the shrinkage and distortion due to welding are restrained. Some extensive studies describe the optimization of the welding stresses and the metallurgical effects regarding an adapted welding heat control. Lower working temperatures revealed to be particularly effective to reduce the local and global welding-induced residual stresses of the complete weld significantly. However, decreased interpass temperatures cause concurrently higher stresses during welding fabrication. This work shows strategies to reduce these in-process stresses.
With help of multi-axial welding stress analyses in component-related weld tests, using a special 2-MN-testing facility, differences in stress build-up are described in detail for root welds, filler layers and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature.