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For evaluation of explosion scenarios in closed systems involving the mildly flammable refrigerants R1234yf, R1234ze and R32 dependent on the ignition energy, ignitions were carried out in a closed autoclave. A newly developed ignition system was used, which allows generating electric arcs with defined energies in a range between 3 J and 1000 J. The lower explosion limit of R32 decreases with increasing ignition energy. R32-explosions can be more severe than explosions involving highly flammable substances.
However, in case of R1234yf and R1234ze, the ignition energy had to be increased to more than 100 J and more than 500 J to detect explosions in the closed system at all, although flame Propagation phenomena can already be observed if these substances are ignited with much weaker ignition sources in open glass tubes. The explosions were very mild with these substances.
The present work shows results on elemental distribution analyses in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin films for solar cells performed by use of wavelength-dispersive and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) in a scanning electron microscope, EDX in a transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron, angle-dependent soft X-ray emission, secondary ion-mass (SIMS), time-of-flight SIMS, sputtered neutral mass, glow-discharge optical emission and glow-discharge mass, Auger electron, and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, by use of scanning Auger electron microscopy, Raman depth profiling, and Raman mapping, as well as by use of elastic recoil detection analysis, grazing-incidence X-ray and electron backscatter diffraction, and grazing-incidence X-ray fluorescence analysis. The Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin films used for the present comparison were produced during the same identical deposition run and exhibit thicknesses of about 2 µm. The analysis techniques were compared with respect to their spatial and depth resolutions, measuring speeds, availabilities, and detection limits.