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The addition of nanoparticles as reinforcing fillers in elastomers yields nanocomposites with unique property profiles, which opens the door for various new application fields. Major factors influencing the performance of nanocomposites are studied by varying the type and shape of nanoparticles and their dispersion in the natural rubber matrix. The industrial applicability of these nanocomposites is put into focus using two types of graphene and a nanoscale carbon black, all commercially available, and scalable processing techniques in the form of a highly filled masterbatch production via latex premixing by simple stirring or ultrasonically assisted dispersing with surfactant followed by conventional two-roll milling and hot pressing. Different processing and measurement methods reveal the potential for possible improvements: rheology, curing behavior, static and dynamic mechanical properties, swelling, and fire behavior. The aspect ratio of the nanoparticles and their interaction with the surrounding matrix prove to be crucial for the development of superior nanocomposites. An enhanced dispersing method enables the utilization of the improvement potential at low filler loadings (3 parts per hundred of rubber [phr]) and yields multifunctional rubber nanocomposites: two-dimensional layered particles (graphene) result in anisotropic material behavior with strong reinforcement in the in-plane direction (157% increase in the Young's modulus). The peak heat release rate in the cone calorimeter is reduced by 55% by incorporating 3 phr of few-layer graphene via an optimized dispersing process.
In the processing of nanocomposites, high shear stresses at elevated tempera-tures orient two-dimensional nanoparticles like graphene. This orientationleads to anisotropic mechanical, thermal or barrier properties of the nanocom-posite. This anisotropy is addressed in this study by comparing graphene (few-layer graphene, FLG) with a nanoscaled carbon black (nCB) at a filler contentof 3 phr, by varying the vulcanization, and by comparing different FLG con-tents. Transmission electron microscopy gives insight into the qualitative ori-entation in the nanocomposite with FLG or nCB. The storage moduli paralleland normal to the orientation reveal the direction dependency of reinforce-ment through dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Dimensional swellingmeasurements show a restriction of the expansion parallel to the FLG orienta-tion, and an increased expansion normal to the orientation. The vulcanizationsystem and crosslinking determine the respective level of property values, andhigher crosslinking densities increase the anisotropy in DMA resulting invalues of up to 2.9 for the quantified anisotropy factor. With increasing FLGcontent, the anisotropy increases. A comparison of the results reveals swellingmeasurements as the most suitable method for the determination of anisot-ropy. Compared to recent literature, the presented processing induces higheranisotropy, leading to higher reinforcing effects in the direction of orientation
The residual post-fire mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced epoxy composites are influenced by their fire residues after burning. This study uses intumescent/low-melting glass flame retardants to tailor fire residues in epoxy resin. Processibility of prepregs and their quality are analysed for transfer of the flame-retardant epoxy resins to layered glass-fiber reinforced composites. Minimal effects were found on the pre-fire flexural strengths of the composites due to low loading of the flame retardants. However, when transferred to glass-fiber reinforced composites, the fire residues diminish significantly. Further studies are required to improve theoretical and experimental estimations of the post-fire mechanics of the composites.
Polyamide 4.6 (PA46) is a high-heat-resistant polymer, but it has no dripping resistance under fire. Three commercial grades of PA46 are investigated under UL 94 vertical fire test conditions. Their performances are discussed based on the materials’ structural, thermal, and rheological properties. PA46 presents flaming drops, whereas dripping is prevented in the flame-retarded PA46.
Friction-modified PA46 has increased flaming dripping. Temperature profiles of the specimens under fire and the temperature of the drops are measured by thermocouples. A UL 94 vertical test configuration consisting of two flame applications is designed to assess the quantitative dripping behavior of the set of materials by the particle finite element method (PFEM). Polymer properties (activation energy and Arrhenius coefficient of decomposition, char yield, density, effective heat of combustion, heat of decomposition, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity) in addition to rheological responses in high temperatures are estimated and measured as input parameters for the simulations. The dripping behavior obtained by simulated materials corresponds with the experimental results in terms of time and drop size. A consistent picture of the interplay of the different phenomena controlling dripping under fire appears to deliver a better understanding of the role of different materials’ properties