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Nach der Reaktorkatastrophe in Fukushima 2011 hat die Bundesregierung beschlossen die Nutzung der Kernenergie bis zum Jahr 2022 zu beenden. Seitdem erfolgt der Rückbau und die Stilllegung der kerntechnischen Anlagen in Deutschland. Dieser Vortrag erörtert die Herausforderungen, die sich mit dem Transport und der Lagerung von Kernbrennstoffen ergeben und leitet daraus Anforderungen ab, die an Transportbehälter gestellt werden.
The first German package design approval certificate for a dual purpose cask intended for loading with damaged spent nuclear fuel was issued recently. BAM as part of the competent authority system in Germany carried out a comprehensive assessment procedure with respect to the mechanical and thermal design, the release of radioactive material and the quality assurance aspects of manufacturing and operation. Packages for the transport and storage of radioactive material have been assessed by BAM for many years, thus the common assessment procedure is well-known and good practice. Up to now only SNF without defects or HLW with well-defined properties were designated for long-term Interim storage and transports afterwards. Due to Germany’s nuclear phase out all other kinds of spent nuclear fuel in particular damaged spent nuclear fuel shall be packed as well. Damaged spent nuclear fuel needs a tight closure with Special encapsulations and clearly defined properties in Germany. In addition, these encapsulations shall be long-term durable, because they are not accessible after loading in a packaging within periodical inspections. The main difference to Standard package components is that encapsulations with a permanent closure achieve their specified conditions not after manufacturing but only during operation, after loading and closing. To ensure compliance with the specific conditions, special measures for quality assurance are necessary during operation of each encapsulation, e.g. drying and sealing, which were assessed by BAM. The present paper gives an overview of the conducted assessment from BAM and point out the findings concerning to the special closure lid of the approved encapsulation, which is screwed and welded. A wide verification concept is necessary to show the specific tightness under transport conditions. Together with quality assurance measures during first operation steps these encapsulations with damaged spent nuclear fuel can be handled like standard fuel assemblies in approved package designs.
German package design approvals were granted recently for dual purpose casks (DPC) intended for loading with encapsulated damaged spent nuclear fuel (DSNF). Comprehensive assessment procedures were carried out by the authority BAM with respect to the mechanical and thermal package design, the activity release of radioactive material and quality assurance aspects for manufacturing and operation of each packaging. The objective of each procedure was to verify the Package Design Safety Report (PDSR) and the relevant guidelines fulfils the requirements of the IAEA regulations.
Previous approvals of German SNF package designs consider mainly standard fuel assemblies with defined specifications and properties for transport and interim storage. Due to the nuclear power phase-out in Germany all kinds of SNF, e.g. damaged spent fuel rods shall be packed in DPC now. Therefore specific requirements shall be considered in accordance with international experiences including IAEA technical reports. The main requirement for DSNF is a tight encapsulation with specific defined properties under transport and storage conditions.
Due to the interim storage period of currently up to 40 years the encapsulation with DSNF in the casks shall also be long term durable. Thus specific loading and drying procedures are necessary and had to be qualified during the approval process. BAM assessed these drying procedures and could confirm the long-term behaviour of the encapsulation and the suitability of the drying equipment. This special equipment was qualified in a “cold handling”. In addition, it was shown that the behaviour of the test equipment used in the qualification process was comparable with the original equipment, e.g. test fuel rods or test encapsulation. In the development of the drying process, experience was obtained in how to put the requirements of the IAEA regulations and related IAEA technical reports into practice.
The paper gives an overview of approval assessment and testing experience made by BAM and point out the main resulting requirements on drying processes for these kinds of encapsulations with DSNF.
German package design approvals were granted recently for dual purpose casks (DPC) intended for loading with encapsulated damaged spent nuclear fuel (DSNF). Comprehensive assessment procedures were carried out by the authority BAM with respect to the mechanical and thermal package design, the activity release of radioactive material and quality assurance aspects for manufacturing and operation of each packaging. The objective of each procedure was to verify the Package Design Safety Report (PDSR) and the relevant guidelines fulfils the requirements of the IAEA regulations.
Previous approvals of German SNF package designs consider mainly standard fuel assemblies with defined specifications and properties for transport and interim storage. Due to the nuclear power phase-out in Germany all kinds of SNF, e.g. damaged spent fuel rods shall be packed in DPC now. Therefore specific requirements shall be considered in accordance with international experiences including IAEA technical reports. The main requirement for DSNF is a tight encapsulation with specific defined properties under transport and storage conditions.
Due to the interim storage period of currently up to 40 years the encapsulation with DSNF in the casks shall also be long term durable. Thus specific loading and drying procedures are necessary and had to be qualified during the approval process. BAM assessed these drying procedures and could confirm the long-term behaviour of the encapsulation and the suitability of the drying equipment. This special equipment was qualified in a “cold handling”. In addition, it was shown that the behaviour of the test equipment used in the qualification process was comparable with the original equipment, e.g. test fuel rods or test encapsulation. In the development of the drying process, experience was obtained in how to put the requirements of the IAEA regulations and related IAEA technical reports into practice.
The paper gives an overview of approval assessment and testing experience made by BAM and point out the main resulting requirements on drying processes for these kinds of encapsulations with DSNF.
Damaged spent nuclear fuel (DSNF) can be loaded in German dual-purpose casks (DPC) for transport and interim storage. Encapsulations are needed to guarantee a safe handling and a tight closure, separated from the package enclosure. These encapsulations shall be durable and leak-tight for a long storage period, because they are usually not accessible within periodical inspections of the DPC. Due to the general design of DPCs for standard fuel assemblies, specific requirements have to be considered for the design of encapsulations for DSNF to ensure the loading in existing package designs. Especially the primary lid system of a DPC is designed for maximum loads due to the internal impact of the content during drop test conditions. The main difference of encapsulations for damaged spent nuclear fuel is that they have usually a much higher stiffness than standard fuel assemblies. Therefore the design of an internal shock absorber, e.g. at the head of an encapsulation is required to reduce mechanical loads to the primary lid system during impacts.
BAM as part of the German competent authority system is responsible for the safety assessment of the mechanical and thermal package design, the release of radioactive material and the quality assurance of package manufacturing and operation. Concerning the mechanical design of the encapsulation BAM was involved in the comprehensive assessment procedure during the package design approval process. An internal shock absorber was developed by the package designer with numerical analyses and experimental drop tests. Experimental drop tests are needed to cover limiting parameters regarding, e.g. temperature and wall thickness of the shock absorbing element to enable a detailed specification of the whole load-deformation behavior of the encapsulation shock absorber.
The paper gives an overview of the assessment work by BAM and points out the main findings which are relevant for an acceptable design of internal shock absorbers. The physical drop tests were planned on the basis of pre-investigations of the applicant concerning shape, dimension and material properties. In advance of the final drop tests the possible internal impact behavior had to be analyzed and the setup of the test facility had to be validated. The planning, performance and evaluation of the final drop tests were witnessed and assessed by BAM. In conclusion it could be approved that the German encapsulation system for damaged spent nuclear fuel with shock absorbing components can be handled similar to standard fuel assemblies in existing package designs.
Packages for the transport of radioactive material are often equipped with impact limiters consisting of wood, encapsulated by steel sheets. These impact limiters shall ensure that transport casks meet the IAEA safety requirements. After damage caused by the mechanical tests the package has to withstand a severe fire scenario. It is required that the mechanical tests have to produce maximum damage, taking into account the thermal test. Furthermore, any damage, which would give rise to increased radiation or loss of containment or affect the confinement system after the thermal test, should be considered. Concerning the thermal test, the IAEA safety requirements state that during and following the fire test, the specimen shall not be artificially cooled and any combustion of materials of the package shall be permitted to proceed naturally. Different works from the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) and BAM show that additional energy supply from a pre-damaged impact limiter to the cask could occur caused by smoldering of the wood. This effect should be considered within the safety assessment of the package. A heat wave from the fire could overlap with the additional energy from the impact limiter in the sealing system. In 2015 BAM conducted small scale
fire tests with wood filled metal drums showing continuing combustion processes during the cooling down phase. As not much is known about smoldering processes in wood filled impact limiters, it is highly complex to define pre-damage of impact limiters, which are conservative, regarding the most damaging energy flow from the impact limiter to the containment system in dependence of time. More research has to be done to develop models to examine the effects of smoldering impact limiters on the containment of packages for the assessment. The process of smoldering is described with regard to the requirements in the thermal safety assessment. Parameters influencing the smoldering process are identified. BAM operates test facilities to examine the issue of mechanical damage, combustion and heat transfer of packages for transport of radioactive material. A thermal test will take place with a wood filled test specimen with a diameter of about 2.3 meters. The aim is to understand the phenomena of smoldering under the consideration of relevant regulatory boundary conditions.
Packages for the transport of radioactive material are often equipped with impact limiters consisting of wood, encapsulated by steel sheets. These impact limiters shall ensure that the transport casks meet the mechanical and thermal IAEA regulatory test requirements. According to the accident conditions of transport it is mandatory to expose the specimens to a cumulative effect by mechanical and thermal impacts. The mechanical tests consist of a free drop from 9 m onto a flat unyielding target and a 1 m drop onto a puncture bar. After damage caused by mechanical test sequences the package has to withstand a severe fire scenario. Corresponding to the IAEA advisory material it is required that the impact attitudes for the 9 m drop test and for the puncture test have to be such as to produce maximum damage, taking into account the thermal test. Moreover, any damage, which would give rise to increased radiation or loss of containment or affect the confinement system after the thermal test, should be considered. During and following the thermal test, the specimen shall not be artificially cooled and any combustion of materials of the package shall be permitted to proceed naturally. Different works from the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) and BAM show that additional energy supply from a pre-damaged impact limiter to the cask could occur. This effect should be considered within the safety assessment of the containment. Thermal effects at the closure system of the cask, which might result in an elevated activity release, have to be excluded. BAM conducted small scale tests with wood filled metal buckets showing continuing combustion processes during the cooling down phase. These test results are presented. As not much is known about smouldering processes in wood filled impact limiters, it is highly complex to define pre-damage of impact limiters, which are conservative, regarding the maximum damaging energy flow from the impact limiter to the containment system. More research has to be done to develop models to examine the effects of smouldering impact limiters on the containment of packages for the transport of radioactive material. Aspects of assessment and its difficulties are shown. BAM as a competent authority for the approval of transport casks for radioactive material in Germany operates the test facilities to examine the issue of mechanical damage, combustion and heat transfer for such kind of package systems. For this purpose the knowledge from real drop tests with casks of a mass partly over 100 tons was transferred to a test application. A thermal test will take place with a wood filled test specimen with a diameter of about 2.3 meters. The aim is to understand the phenomena of smouldering under the consideration of relevant regulatory boundary conditions. The process of smouldering is described with regard to the requirements in the thermal assessment of safety of packages for the transport of radioactive material. Requirements concerning the pre-damage of packages for the maximum damage of impact limiters are discussed. Parameters influencing the smouldering process are identified.
In Germany the concept of dry interim storage of spent fuel in dual purpose metal casks is implemented, currently for periods of up to 40 years. The casks being used have an approved transport package design in accordance with the international IAEA transport regulations as well. The storage of spent nuclear fuel and high-level waste in dual purpose casks (DPC) is related with the challenge of maintaining safety for transportation over several decades of storage.
Besides consideration of aging mechanisms by appropriate design, material selection and operational controls to assure technical reliability by aging management measures, an essential issue is the continuous control and update of the DPC safety case.
Not only the technical objects are subject of aging but also the safety demonstration basis is subject of “aging” due to possible changes of regulations, standards and scientific/technical knowledge.
To ensure a safe transport in future to a destination which is not known yet (because of not yet existing repository sites) periodical reviews of the Package Design Safety Report (PDSR), in connection with periodic renewals of package design approval certificates, have to be carried out.
Typical transport packages used in Germany are equipped with wooden impact limiting devices. In this paper we give an overview of the latest status regarding the development of a finite element material model for the crush of spruce wood. Although the crush of wood – mainly in longitudinal direction – is a phenomenon governed by macroscopic fracture and failure of wood fibres we smear fracture and failure mechanisms over the continuous voume. In first step we altered an existing LS-DYNA material model for foams, which considers an ellipse shaped yield surface written in terms of the first two stress invariants. The evolution of the yield surface in the existing model depends on the volumetric strain only. For the use with spruce wood, we modified the existing material model to consider the deviatoric strain for the evolution of the yield surface as well. This is in accordance with the results of crush tests with spruce wood specimens, where the crushing deformation was rather deviatoric for uniaxial stress states and rather volumetric for multiaxial stress states We rate the basic idea of this approach to be reasonable, though other problems exist regarding the shape of the yield surface and the assumption of isotropic material properties. Therefore we developed a new transversal isotropic material model with two main directions, which considers different yield curves according to the multiaxiality of the stress state via a multi-surface yield criterion and a non-associated flow rule. The results show the ability to reproduce the basic strength characteristics of spruce wood. Nevertheless, problems with regularization etc. show that additional investigations are necessary.
Atemluftflaschen aus Faserverbundwerkstoffen werden bei einem Brandeinsatz situationsabhängig hohen thermischen Belastungen ausgesetzt. Die Grenzen der sicheren thermischen Belastbarkeit dieser Behälter werden jedoch heutzutage nicht abgeprüft. Deshalb haben es sich die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) im Austausch mit der Bergischen Universität Wuppertal zur Aufgabe gemacht, die Auswirkungen dieser Betriebslasten zu untersuchen. Die Erkenntnisse dieser Untersuchungsreihe sollen genutzt werden, um zu beurteilen, wie thermische Betriebsbedingungen in normierten Prüfkriterien sicherheitstechnisch berücksichtigt werden sollten.
In diesem zweiten Teil der Untersuchungsreihe werden Strömungsversuche dargestellt, die an dem untersuchten Baumuster einer Typ-III-Atemluftflasche unter Laborbedingungen durchgeführt wurden. Basierend auf den Wärmestrahlungsversuchen des ersten Teils dieser Untersuchungsreihe und auf den Strömungsversuchen wird ein analytischer Berechnungsansatz vorgestellt, der die instationäre Temperaturentwicklung im Material der Typ-III-Atemluftflasche konservativ annähert.
Anhand der berechneten Materialtemperaturen kann festgestellt werden, dass unter dem typischen Feuerwehr-Belastungsprofils von 130 °C bis 250 °C die Zulassungstemperatur der Typ-III-Atemluftflasche von 65 °C um bis zu 95 °C überschritten werden kann. Aus diesen Temperaturüberschreitungen können zwei Unsicherheiten identifiziert werden. Die Auslegung des Faserverbundwerkstoffs orientiert sich normgerecht an der oberen Zulassungstemperatur. Wird die Typ-III-Atemluftflasche im Brandeinsatz eingesetzt, ist es möglich, dass der lasttragende Faserverbundwerkstoff partiell über seinen nominellen Auslegungsbereich hinaus erwärmt wird. Eine weitere Unsicherheit ergibt sich für den Sicherheitsnachweis im Rahmen der Zulassungsprüfung. Für die Typ-III-Atemluftflaschen erfolgen für den Temperaturbereich des Brandeinsatzes kein statischer und kein dynamischer Festigkeitsnachweis.