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High-entropy alloys (HEAs) and compositionally complex alloys (CCAs) represent new classes of materials containing five or more alloying elements (concentration of each element ranging from 5 to 35 at. %). In the present study, HEAs are defined as single-phase solid solutions; CCAs contain at least two phases. The alloy concept of HEAs/CCAs is fundamentally different from most conventional alloys and promises interesting properties for industrial applications (e.g., to overcome the strength-ductility trade-off). To date, little attention has been paid to the weldability of HEAs/CCAs encompassing effects on the welding metallurgy. It remains open whether welding of HEAs/CCAs may lead to the formation of brittle intermetallics and promote elemental segregation at crystalline defects. The effect on the weld joint properties (strength, corrosion resistance) must be investigated. The weld metal and heat-affected zone in conventional alloys are characterized by non-equilibrium microstructural evolutions that most probably occur in HEAs/CCAs. The corresponding weldability has not yet been studied in detail in the literature, and the existing information is not documented in a comprehensive way. Therefore, this study summarizes the most important results on the welding of HEAs/CCAs and their weld joint properties, classified by HEA/CCA type (focused on CoCrFeMnNi and AlxCoCrCuyFeNi system) and welding process.
Medium and High Entropy Alloys (MEA/HEA) are recently developed material classes, providing manifold applications, e.g., due to extraordinary structural properties. In that connection, the machinability as important issue for the processing of these materials was not in the scientific focus. This study focusses on experimental analysis of milling process conditions including ultrasonic assisted milling (USAM) and their effects on the resulting surface integrity of equiatomic CoCrFeNi-MEA specimens. For that reason, milling parameters (cutting speed, feed per cutting edge) were systematically varied for both conventional milling and USAM. The surface integrity was analyzed in terms of topography, defects, and residual stresses. Especially USAM leads to a decrease of occurring cutting forces and, hence, to an improvement of the surface integrity. Beneficial effects were observed in terms of lower tensile residual stresses at high cutting speed and feed per cutting edge.
Martensitic 9% Cr steels like P91 and P92 show susceptibility to delayed hydrogen assisted cracking depending on their microstructure. In that connection, effective hydrogen diffusion coefficients are used to assess the possible time-delay. Limited data on room temperature diffusion coefficients reported in literature vary widely by several orders of magnitude (mostly attributed to variation in microstructure). Especially P91 weld metal diffusion coefficients are rare so far. For that reason, electrochemical permeation experiments had been conducted using P92 base metal and P91 weld metal (in as-welded and heat-treated condition) with different thicknesses. From the results obtained, diffusion coefficients were calculated using to different methods, time-lag, and inflection point. Results show that, despite microstructural effects, the sample thickness must be considered as it influences the calculated diffusion coefficients. Finally, the comparison of calculated and measured hydrogen concentrations (determined by carrier gas hot extraction) enables the identification of realistic diffusion coefficients.
Hoch- und Mittelentropie-Legierungen (engl. High/Medium Entropy Alloys–HEA/MEA) sind relativ neue Werkstoffklassen. Im Gegensatz zu herkömmlichen Le-gierungen bestehen HEA aus fünf bzw. MEA aus drei oder vier Legierungselementen im äquiatomaren Gleichgewicht. Viele HEA weisen aufgrund hervorragender struktu-reller Eigenschaftskombinationen von sehr tiefen bis zu hohen Temperaturen enor-mes Anwendungspotential auf. Die Anwendung für reale Bauteile stellt jedoch die zentrale Frage der Eignung für die fügetechnische Verarbeitung. Dieser Aspekt findet in der weltweiten Materialforschung bisher kaum Beachtung. Anforderungen an die zuverlässige und sichere fügetechnische Verarbeitung dieser Werkstoffe sind von wesentlicher Bedeutung hinsichtlich wirtschaftlicher Bauteilfertigung für spätere po-tenzielle Anwendungsbereiche, bspw. in der Energietechnik. Das Rührreibschweißen (engl. Friction Stir Welding–FSW) stellt hierbei einen vielversprechenden Fügepro-zess dar, dessen Hauptvorteil in der Schweißprozesstemperatur unterhalb der Schmelztemperatur der zu fügenden Werkstoffe liegt. Dies bedingt die Vermeidung der Ausbildung von harten, versprödenden intermetallischen Phasen, wie sie z. B. beim konventionellen Schmelzschweißen von Eisen-Aluminium-Verbindungen auf-treten. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Schweißbar-keit einer CoCrFeMnNi-Legierung (HEA) und einer CoCrNi-Legierung (MEA) mit dem FSW-Prozess vor. Die Versuchsschweißungen werden mittels mikroskopischer Analysen hinsichtlich des Schweißnahtaufbaus sowie Schweißnahtfehlern charakte-risiert. FSW zeigt sich als grundlegend geeignet zur Verbindungsschweißung der HEA bzw. MEA. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse kann eine weitere Bewertung der Schweißbar-keit erfolgen.
The new alloying concept of multi-element systems with defined entropy (HEA—high-entropy alloy; MEA—medium-entropy alloy) is gaining increasing importance in materials research. Significantly improved properties or combinations of properties are shown by some HEA/MEA systems. Thus, primarily the production and resulting microstructures of HEA, as well as its properties, have been investigated so far. Furthermore, processing is a main issue in transferring HEA systems from the laboratory to real components. Since welding is the most important joining process for metals, it is crucial to investigate the influence of welding to guarantee component integrity. Welding leads to residual stresses, which significantly affect the component integrity. Hence, the focus of this study is the residual stress formation and distribution in a CoCrFeMnNi HEA and ternary CoCrNi MEA using two different welding processes: tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding and solid-state friction stir welding (FSW). As a pathway for the application of HEA in this investigation, for the first time, residual stress analyses in realistic near-component specimens were performed. The residual stresses were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) on the surfaces of top and root weld side. The results were correlated with the local welding microstructures. The results show that both FSW and TIG generate significant tensile residual stresses on the weld surfaces in, and transverse to, the welding direction. In the case of FSW of the CoCrFeMnNi HEA, the longitudinal residual stresses are in the range of the yield strength of approx. 260 MPa in the weld zone.
The new multi-element alloying concept of systems with defined entropy (HEA — high-entropy alloy or MEA — medium-entropy alloy) is increasing in material research interest. Improved properties or combinations of properties are shown by several systems. Thus, the resulting microstructures and production of HEA/MEA as well as properties have been primarily investigated so far. Furthermore, processing is a key issue to transfer HEA/MEA systems to real components. Since welding is the most important joining process for metals, it is crucial to investigate the influence of welding to guarantee component integrity. Since most HEA are made of expensive alloying elements such as Co or Ni, they will not be used entirely as structural materials. Thus, it can be advantageous to weld conventional alloys such as austenitic stainless steels with the HEA and MEA to produce components that are both application-oriented and economically viable. Therefore, in this paper, first results of dissimilar metal welding, by tungsten inert gas (TIG) and friction stir welding (FSW), of a CoCrFeMnNi HEA as well as a CoCrNi MEA with a conventional AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel are presented. The focus is on the microstructure formation due to the two welding processes. The results of TIG welding show a dendritic microstructure, whereas in FSW both materials are stirred but still coexist.
This work explores the feasibility of producing bead-on-plate welds of a CrCoNi medium entropy alloy and a CrMnFeCoNi high entropy alloy using electron beam welding. The alloys were welded in two states: one in an as-cold-rolled condition and the other in an annealed condition. In addition, the materials are welded with two different parameters. The FCC microstructure of the welds is investigated using scanning electron microscopy assisted by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and electron-backscattered diffraction. The impact of the weld on the microstructure is discussed. The heat-affected zone is negligible for the annealed condition of both medium and high entropy alloys since there is no driving force for recrystallisation and the exposure time to high temperature is insufficient for grain coarsening. The texture formed in the fusion zone is also discussed and compared to the texture in the base metal and the heat-affected zone. Although the grain growth along the (100) crystallographic direction is preferential in all cases, the crystallographic texture type differs from each weld. Higher hardness values are measured in the medium entropy alloy’s base metal and fusion zone than in the high entropy alloy.
This work investigates the microstructure formed in friction stir welds of FCC alloys, focused on two multiprincipal alloys: a CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) and a CoCrNi medium-entropy alloy (MEA). A commercial stainless steel AISI 304 is used for comparison. The largest nugget was formed in the MEA, while the smallest was formed in the HEA. Grain refinement occurs in the stirred zone in all welds. Discontinuous dynamic recrystallisation is the predominant restoration mechanism during friction stir welding of the three investigated alloys. A sharp decrement in the Σ3 boundary fraction occurs in the stirred zone of the AISI 304 and HEA welds, while comparable values with the base metal are found for the MEA weld. The peak in the maximum index of crystallographic texture is observed on the advancing side of the stirred zone of the AISI 304 weld. A strong <001> θ-fibre texture is formed in the advancing side of the nugget in the AISI 304 from a well-established {123} <634> S-type texture in the base metal. Multiple crystallographic texture components without specific fibres are identified in most regions of the welds, indicating the complex shear path history during friction stir welding.
Multiple principal element alloys encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEA). The alloy system represents a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.%. Thus, this alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. However, in the last 20 years, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of HEAs has received very little attention so far. The experience with dissimilar metal welds is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents comprehensive experimental results on the weldability of an equimolar CoCrFeMnNi-HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition, which was joined by tungsten inert gas welding to an austenitic steel AISI 304. The mechanical properties of the dissimilar metal welds were characterized by cross-weld tensile samples, whereas the local deformation in the weld of the different welding zones was measured by digital image correlation. In accordance with the respective initial HEA condition (cold-rolled vs. heat-treated), the local strain behavior was divergent and influenced the global mechanical properties of both DMW types. Nonetheless, the experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability for dissimilar joints of the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA welded to conventional materials like austenitic stainless steels ensuring a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials.
Multielement-Legierungen (MPEA – multiple pricipal element alloys) stellen eine neue Klasse von Werkstoffen dar, die aus mindestens drei äquiatomaren Legierungselementen mit jeweils einem Gehalt von 5–35 Atom-% bestehen. Somit unterscheidet sich das Legierungskonzept fundamental von konventionellen bspw. Stahl- oder Al-basierten Legierungen. In jüngster Zeit lag der Schwerpunkt auf dem Legierungs-Design der MPEA und der Überprüfung bzw. Erreichung der gewünschten Eigenschaften bzw. -kombinationen. Hierzu werden die egierungselemente gezielt ausgewählt und die Mikrostrukturen ein- und zum Teil auch mehrphasig eingestellt. Ziel sind hochinnovative MPEA mit angepassten Eigenschaften für die industrielle Anwendung. Dabei sollen insbesondere die bei konventionellen Legierungen wesentlichen Zielkonflikte, wie bspw. der Trade-off zwischen Festigkeit und Duktilität, überwunden werden. Darüber hinaus sind mechanische Eigenschaften bei sehr hohen sowie kryogenen Temperaturen bei gleichzeitig höchster Korrosionsbeständigkeit von hohem Interesse. Die Herstellung von Bauteilen erfordert dazu werkstoff- und beanspruchungsgerechte Füge- bzw. Schweißverfahren. Der Schweißeignung von MPEA wurde bis Ende 2021 nur äußert wenig Aufmerksamkeit zuteil. Die Auswirkungen durch Schweißprozesse auf die Metallurgie und die gewünschten Eigenschaften sind bisher kaum bekannt und limitieren die potenzielle Anwendbarkeit als Funktions- oder Konstruktionswerkstoffe.
In einem interdisziplinären BAM-Forschungsprojekt werden aktuell grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Schweißverarbeitung und resultierender Mikrostruktur-Anwendungseigenschafts-Beziehung verschiedener MPEA durchgeführt. Insbesondere Wärmeeinflusszone und Schweißgut sind geprägt durch eine Mikrostruktur, die aus Ungleichgewichtszuständen resultiert. Im Falle von MPEA wurde dies bisher nicht systematisch untersucht. Dazu erfolgte im Rahmen des Projektes eine umfassende Literaturauswertung zum Schweißen von MPEA und Zusammenfassung in einer umfassenden, systematischen Datenbasis. Aus diesem Grund sollen in der vorliegenden Studie die bisher bedeutsamsten Erkenntnisse zur Schweißbarkeit von MPEA systematisch nach MPEA-Typ und Schweißverfahren geordnet und mit eigenen aktuellen Forschungsergebnissen verglichen werden. Durch WIG- und Rührreibschweißversuche an den MPEA-Systemen CoCrNiFeMn bzw. CoCrNi konnten im Projektverlauf bereits wesentliche Fragestellungen beantwortet werden. Dazu zählen Auftreten bzw. Verhinderung intermetallischer Phasen/Seigerungen oder deren Auswirkung auf die Eigenschaften der Schweißverbindung (bspw. Festigkeit oder Korrosionsbeständigkeit).