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The objective of this paper is to demonstrate a new simulation technique which allows fast and automatic generation of temperature fields as input for subsequent thermomechanical welding simulation. The basic idea is to decompose the process model into an empirical part based on neural networks and a phenomenological part that describes the physical phenomena. The strength of this composite modelling approach is the automatic calibration of mathematical models against experimental data without the need for manual interference by an experienced user. As an example for typical applications in laser beam and GMA-laser hybrid welding, it is shown that even 3D heat conduction models of a low complexity can approximate measured temperature fields with a sufficient accuracy. In general, any derivation of model fitting parameters from the real process adds uncertainties to the simulation independent of the complexity of the underlying phenomenological model. The modelling technique presented hybridises empirical and phenomenological models. It reduces the model uncertainties by exploiting additional information which keeps normally hidden in the data measured when the model calibration is performed against few experimental data sets. In contrast, here the optimal model parameter set corresponding to a given process parameter is computed by means of an empirical submodel based on relatively large set of experimental data. The approach allows making a contribution to an efficient compensation of modelling inaccuracies and lack of knowledge about thermophysical material properties or boundary conditions. Two illustrating examples are provided.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate a new simulation technique which allows the fast and automatic generation to temperature fields based on a combination of empirical and phenomenological modelling techniques. The automatic calibration of the phenomenological model is performed by a multi-variable global optimisation routine which yields the optimal fit between simulated and experimental weld charcteristics without the need for initial model parameters. For exemplary welding processes it is shown that linear 3D heat conduction models can approximate measured temperature fields with a high accuracy. The modelling approach presented comprises the automatic calibration against multiple experiments which permits simulating the temperature field for unknown process parameters. The validation of this composite simulation model is performed for exemplary welding processes and includes the prediction of the fusion line in the cross section and the corresponding thermal cycles.
Fast temperature field generation for welding simulation and reduction of experimental effort
(2009)
The quality of welding processes is governed by the occurring induced distortions yielding an
increase in production costs due to necessary reworking. Especially for more complex specimens
it is difficult to evaluate the optimal configuration of welding sequences in order to
minimise the distortion. Even experienced welding operators can solve this task only by trial
and error which is time and cost consuming.
In modern engineering the application of welding simulation is already known to be able to
analyse the heat effects of welding virtually. However, the welding process is governed by
complex physical interactions. Thus, recent weld thermal models are based on many simplifications.
The state of the art is to apply numerical methods in order to solve the transient heat
conduction equation. Therefore, it is not possible to use the real process parameters as input
for the mathematical model. The model parameters which allow calculating a temperature
field that is in best agreement with the experiments cannot be defined directly but inversely by
multiple simulations runs. In case of numerical simulation software based on finite discretisation
schemes this approach is very time consuming and requires expert users. The weld
thermal model contains an initial weakness which has to be adapted by finding an optimal set
of model parameters. This process of calibration is often done against few experiments. The
range of model validity is limited. An extension can be obtained by performing a calibration
against multiple experiments.
The focus of the paper is to show a combined modelling technique which provides an efficient
solution of the inverse heat conduction problem mentioned above. On the one hand the inverse
problem is solved by application of fast weld thermal models which are closed form
solutions of the heat conduction equation. In addition, a global optimisation algorithm allows
an automated calibration of the weld thermal model. This technique is able to provide a temperature
field automatically that fits the experimental one with high accuracy within minutes
on ordinary office computers. This fast paradigm permits confirming the application of welding
simulation in an industrial environment as automotive industry.
On the other hand, the initial model weakness is compensated by calibrating the model
against multiple experiments. The unknown relationship between model and process parameters
is approximated by a neural network. The validity of the model is increased successively
and enables to decrease experimental effort. For a test case it is shown, that this approach
yields accurate temperature fields within very short amount of time for unknown process parameters
as input data to the model contributing to the requirement to construct a substitute
system of the real welding process.
Fast temperature field generation for welding simulation and reduction of experimental effort
(2011)
The quality of welding processes is governed by the occurring induced distortions yielding an increase in production costs due to necessary reworking. Especially for more complex specimens, it is difficult to evaluate the optimal configuration of welding sequences in order to minimize the distortion. Even experienced welding operators can solve this task only by trial and error which is time and cost consuming. In modern engineering the application of welding simulation is already known to be able to analyse the heat effects of welding virtually. However, the welding process is governed by complex physical interactions. Thus, recent weld thermal models are based on many simplifications. The state of the art is to apply numerical methods in order to solve the transient heat conduction equation. Therefore, it is not possible to use the real process parameters as input for the mathematical model. The model parameters which allow calculating a temperature field that is in best agreement with the experiments cannot be defined directly but inversely by multiple simulations runs. In case of numerical simulation software based on finite discretization schemes this approach is very time consuming and requires expert users. The weld thermal model contains an initial weakness which has to be adapted by finding an optimal set of model parameters. This process of calibration is often done against few experiments. The range of model validity is limited. An extension can be obtained by performing a calibration against multiple experiments. The focus of the paper is to show a combined modelling technique which provides an efficient solution of the inverse heat conduction problem mentioned above. On the one hand the inverse problem is solved by application of fast weld thermal models which are closed form solutions of the heat conduction equation. In addition, a global optimization algorithm allows an automated calibration of the weld thermal model. This technique is able to provide a temperature field automatically that fits the experimental one with high accuracy within minutes on ordinary office computers. This fast paradigm permits confirming the application of welding simulation in an industrial environment as automotive industry. On the other hand, the initial model weakness is compensated by calibrating the model against multiple experiments. The unknown relationship between model and process parameters is approximated by a neural network. The validity of the model is increased successively and enables to decrease experimental effort, For a test case, it is shown that this approach yields accurate temperature fields within very short amount of time for unknown process parameters as input data to the model contributing to the requirement to construct a substitute system of the real welding process.
The paper presents bounded volume heat sources and the corresponding functional-analytical expressions for the temperature field. The power density distributions considered here are normal, exponential and parabolic. The sources model real heat sources like the welding arc, laser beam, electron beam, etc., the convection in the weld pool as well as the latent heat due to fusion and solidification. The parameters of the heat source models are unknown a priori and have to be evaluated by solving an inverse heat conduction problem. The functional-analytical technique for calculating 3D temperature fields in butt welding is developed. The proposed technique makes it possible to reduce considerably the total time for data input and solution. It is demonstrated with an example of laser beam welding of steel plates.
This paper presents volume heat sources and the corresponding functional analytical Solutions for the transient temperature field. The considered energy distributions are normal, exponential and parabolic. The method follows the common approach in Computational Welding Mechanics (CWM) to account for the physics of the welding process and the resulting temperature field by phenomenological models for heat conduction. Therefore, the used heat source models are apparent heat sources that incorporate the real heat input as well as the fluid flow in the weld pool and the latent heat connected with phase transformations. The heat source models provide welding characteristics like thermal cycle and Fusion line in the cross section within short computational time. Consequently, inverse techniques on basis of optimisation algorithms enable the adaptation of the models to the experimental data efficiently. Furthermore, the direct evaluation of the energy distribution for the experimental fusion line in the cross section is demonstrated which enhances the numerical optimisation by reducing the number of unknown model Parameters and providing a reasonable initial guess within the model parameter space. The proposed temperature field models are validated with real laser beam welding experiments.
Die aktuelle Normung bezüglich mikroskopischer Untersuchungen von Schweißverbindungen und die Zulässigkeit von Mikrorissen sowie deren Definition ist nicht eindeutig. Nach der Darstellung derzeit gültiger Normen im Bereich der Bewertung von Schweißnähten, Qualifizierung von Schweißverfahren und Ausführung von Schweißverbindungen, wird auf Grundlage aktueller Schweißversuche an hochfesten vergüteten Feinkornbaustählen die Problematik von Mikrorissen diskutiert. Offene Punkte und Fragen bzw. Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten werden aufgezeigt und zur Diskussion gestellt. Schließlich wird auf die Klärung des Einflusses von Mikrorissen auf die mechanisch- technologischen Werkstoffkennwerte der Schweißverbindung unter statischer sowie zyklischer Beanspruchung hingewiesen. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Neither the latest standardisation with regard to microscopic investigations on welded joints nor the permissibility of microcracks and their definition are unambiguous. According to the representation of currently applicable standards in the fields of the assessment of welds, the qualification of welding processes and the execution of welded joints, the problems associated with microcracks are discussed on the basis of the latest welding tests on high-strength quenched-and-tempered fine-grained structural steels. Not only outstanding points and questions but also improvement possibilities are indicated and opened for discussion. Finally, attention is drawn to the clarification of the influence of microcracks on the mechanical- technological material parameters of the welded joint subjected to both static and cyclic stresses.
Grain refinement is an important possibility to enhance the mechanical properties such as strength, ductility and toughness of aluminium weld metal. In this study, grain refinement was achieved through the addition of commercial grain refiner Al Ti5B1 to gas tungsten arc weld metal of the aluminium alloys 1050A (Al 99.5) and 5083 (Al Mg4.5Mn0.7). The grain refiner additions led to a significant reduction of the weld metal mean grain size (Alloy 1050A, 86 %; Alloy 5083, 44 %) with a change in grain shape from columnar to equiaxed. Tensile tests showed for Alloy 5083 that the weld metal's ductility can be increased through grain refinement. No improvement in weld metal strength (i.e. yield strength and ultimate tensile strength) was observed. Furthermore, tear tests with notched specimens revealed that the resistance against initiation and propagation of cracks in the weld metal can be enhanced through grain refinement. The toughness was observed to increase clearly by grain refinement in weld metal of commercial pure Al (Alloy 1050A). In Alloy 5083 weld metal, the toughness was not improved through grain refinement, likely because of a semi-continuous network of brittle intermetallic phases that facilitate crack propagation.
Modeling of gas metal arc welding process using an analytically determined volumetric heat source
(2013)
High peak temperature and continuous deposition of electrode droplets in the weld puddle inhibit real-time monitoring of thermal cycles and bead dimensions in gas metal arc welding. A three-dimensional numerical heat transfer model is presented here to compute temperature field and bead dimensions considering a volumetric heat source to account for the transfer of arc energy into the weld pool. The heat source dimensions are analytically estimated as function of welding conditions and original joint geometry. The deposition of electrode material is modeled using deactivation and activation of discrete elements in a presumed V-groove joint geometry. The computed values of bead dimensions and thermal cycles are validated with the corresponding measured results. A comparison of the analytically estimated heat source dimensions and the corresponding numerically computed bead dimensions indicate that the former could rightly serve as the basis for conduction heat transfer based models of gas metal arc welding process.
Refinement of the weld metal grain structure can improve the mechanical properties of the weld and decrease the susceptibility to solidification cracking of the weld metal. In this study, commercial Al Ti5B1 grain refiner was used to refine the microstructure of LB (laser beam) and GTA (gas tungsten arc) aluminum welds by inoculation. The grain refiner additions led to a significant decrease in the weld metal mean grain size whereby a transition from columnar to equiaxed grain structure (Columnar to Equiaxed Transition, CET) was observed. The development of both grain size and shape depended upon the base metal (Al alloys 1050A, 5083 and 6082) and upon the welding process. The GTA welding process allowed a more pronounced and a more efficient refinement than in LB welds. Furthermore, the influence of the solidification conditions on the CET was investigated through temperature measurements in the weld metal. The temperature profiles revealed a faster solidification of LB welds than in GTA welds. The results from the temperature measurements were also used to estimate (according to an existing model) the critical thermal gradient at which the CET occurs.
Influence of solute content and solidification parameters on grain refinement of aluminum weld metal
(2013)
Grain refinement provides an important possibility to enhance the mechanical properties (e.g., strength and ductility) and the weldability (susceptibility to solidification cracking) of aluminum weld metal. In the current study, a filler metal consisting of aluminum base metal and different amounts of commercial grain refiner Al Ti5B1 was produced. The filler metal was then deposited in the base metal and fused in a GTA welding process. Additions of titanium and boron reduced the weld metal mean grain size considerably and resulted in a transition from columnar to equiaxed grain shape (CET). In commercial pure aluminum (Alloy 1050A), the grain-refining efficiency was higher than that in the Al alloys 6082 and 5083. Different welding and solidification parameters influenced the grain size response only slightly. Furthermore, the observed grain-size reduction was analyzed by means of the undercooling parameter P and the growth restriction parameter Q, which revealed the influence of solute elements and nucleant particles on grain size.
Austenite grain growth during welding is a critical factor for controlling weld microstructure in addition to nominal composition and thermal cycles. Recently, experimental data suggesting a decrease in martensite start temperature with a decrease in prior austenite grain size has been published. However, the actual sensitivity of this phenomenon on residual stresses evolution in the heat-affected zone has not been investigated, yet. Therefore, a numerical model was modified to consider this phenomenon. Numerical simulations were performed for welding of a low-alloy structural steel with minimum yield strength of 355 MPa (S355J2+N) and a heat-resistant steel P91 or 9Cr–1Mo, respectively. The results clarify the influence of prior austenite grain size on the residual stress development and show the importance martensite transformation temperatures and final martensite fraction. Consequently, the residual stress evolution of P91, which completely transforms to martensite while cooling, based on the enhanced model leads to maximum stress differences of 200 MPa in the heat-affected zone.
Simultaneous measurement of tool torque, traverse force and axial force in friction stir welding
(2013)
Simultaneous measurement of the tool torque, traverse force and axial force during friction stir welding process is of great significance to the understanding of the underlying process mechanism and the optimizing of the process parameters. Different from the traditional measurement methods using load cell or rotating component dynamometer, an indirect but economical methodology is used in this study for the simultaneous measurement of the traverse force, axial force and tool torque by monitoring the output torques of the servo motors and main spindle three-phase AC induction motor inside the FSW machine. The values of the traverse force, axial force and tool torque are determined under different welding conditions, and the influencing factors are examined. The measured results in friction stir welding of AA2024-T4 aluminum alloys at different combinations of tool rotation speed and welding speed lay foundation for process optimization.
Ultrasonic vibration enhanced friction stir welding (UVeFSW) is a recent modification of conventional friction stir welding (FSW), which transmits ultrasonic vibration directly into the localized area of the workpiece near and ahead of the rotating tool. In this study, a high strength aluminium alloy (2024-T4) was welded by this process and conventional FSW, respectively. Then tensile tests, microhardness tests and fracture surface analysis were performed successively on the welding samples. The tests results reveal that ultrasonic vibration can improve the tensile strength and the elongation of welded joints. The microhardness of the stir zone also increases.
Microcrack formation during gas metal arc welding of high-strength fine-grained structural steel
(2014)
The recent development of high-performance-modified spray arc processes in gas metal arc welding due to modern digital control technology and inverter power sources enables a focused spray arc, which results in higher penetration depths and welding speed. However, microcracks occurred in the weld metal while approaching the process limits of the modified spray arc, represented by a 20-mm double layer DV-groove butt-weld. These cracks were detected in structural steel exhibiting a yield strength level of up to 960 MPa and are neither dependent on the used weld power source nor a consequence of the modified spray arc process itself. The metallographic and fractographic investigations of the rather exceptional fracture surface lead to the classification of the microcracks as hot cracks. The effects of certain welding parameters on the crack probability are clarified using a statistical design of experiment. However, these microcracks do not impact the design specification for toughness in the Charpy V-notch test (absorbed energy at -40 °C for the present material is 30 J).
The microstructure of a fusion weld has great influences on the susceptibility of the base material to hot cracking and on the mechanical properties of the weld. Small, globulitic grains are necessary for increased strength, ductility and toughness and for a low inclination to hot cracking instead of large, oblong grains. This study reports on the factors which exert the main influences on such grain refinement in the weld. Thus, the influences of the thermal conditions, the chemical composition of the weld metal and the number and type of solidification nuclei on the microstructure were classified for the TIG welding of three different aluminium alloys.
Die Mikrostruktur einer Schmelzschweißnaht hat großen Einfluss auf die Heißrissanfälligkeit des Grundwerkstoffs und die mechanischen Eigenschaften der Schweißnaht. Für eine erhöhte Festigkeit, Duktilität und Zähigkeit und eine geringe Heißrissneigung sind anstatt großer, länglicher Körner kleine, globulitische Körner notwendig. Diese Studie berichtet über die Faktoren, die eine solche Schweißnahtkornfeinung hauptsächlich beeinflussen. So wurde für das Wolfram-Intertgasschweißen (WIG-Schweißen) von drei verschiedenen Aluminiumlegierungen der Einfluss der thermischen Bedingungen, der chemischen Zusammensetzung des Schweißguts und der Anzahl und Art der Erstarrungskeime auf die Mikrostruktur klassifiziert.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The microstructure of fusion welds has a significant influence on the susceptibility of the base material to hot cracking and on the mechanical properties of the weld. Small, globulitic grains are important for increased strength, ductility and toughness and for a low susceptibility to solidification cracking instead of large, columnar grains. This study shows the main influences on such weld metal grain refinement. Therefore, the influence of thermal conditions, the chemical composition of the weld metal and the number and type of solidification nuclei on the microstructure were classified for the TIG welding of three different aluminium alloys.
The accurate prediction of the thermal energy generation and distribution in friction stir welding process is of great significance for the optimization of the process parameters and the understanding of the underlying mechanisms. In this study, a new method of integrative calculation and measurement is proposed to obtain the more reasonable values of the frictional coefficient and the slip rate, which are both used to characterize the heat generation rate at the tool-workpiece contact interfaces. A three-dimensional model is established to fully couple the energy generation, heat transfer and material flow in friction stir welding of aluminum alloys. The energy produced by both interfacial friction and plastic deformation are taken into consideration. The analysis accuracy of the thermal energy generation and distribution is improved, and the distribution features of thermal energy density in the vicinity of the tool are elucidated. The predicted peak temperature values at some locations are in agreement with the experimentally measured ones.
Surface modification of mild steel was undertaken using two covered electrodes and two tubular electrodes. The two covered electrodes are DIN 8555: E6-UM-60 and E10-UM-60GR; however, the two tubular electrodes are E10-GF-60GR1 and E10-GF-60GR2. Chemical analysis for the weld metal and XRD of the flux covering for covered electrodes and flux core for tubular electrodes were conducted. The most important factor in determining the wear resistance is the microstructure of the deposit layers. In similar carbon equivalent electrodes E10-UM-60GR and E10-GF-60GR1, electrode E10-GF-60GR1 (tubular) shows larger carbides area fraction and better wear resistance than electrode E10-UM-60GR (covered). This could be attributed to a lower dilution associated with tubular electrode compared with covered electrode. The two tubular electrodes showed higher wear resistance than the covered electrodes which is mainly due to the larger Fe-Cr carbide precipitation area fraction.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) are applied in evaluating possible social and environmental impacts of the state-of-art welding technologies, such as Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW), Manual Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Automatic GMAW and Automatic Laser-Arc Hybrid Welding (LAHW). The LCA results indicate that for 1 meter weld seam, MMAW consumes the largest amount of resources (like filler material and coating on electrodes) and energy, which contributes to comparatively higher environmental impacts in global warming potential, acidification, photochemical ozone creation potential and eutrophication than other chosen processes. With regard to social aspects, the health issues and fair salary are under survey to compare the relative potential risk on human health caused by fumes in different welding technologies, and to indicate the sufficiency of current salary of welders in Germany. The results reflect that the wage status of welders is still fair and sufficient. The manual processes bring much higher potential risk of welders health than the automatic processes, especially MMAW.
Der Fokus des vorliegenden Beitrages liegt in der Anwendung der numerischen Schweißsimulation zur Berechnung des schweißbedingten Verzugs an industriellen Bauteilen. Anhand einiger Applikationsbeispiele werden die Möglichkeiten und Einschränkungen am Markt verfügbarer Softwareprodukte aufgezeigt. Hierbei liegt die Gewichtung in einer qualitativ korrekten Abbildung der zu analysierenden Phänomene. Diese stellt die Basis für nachfolgende Parameterstudien dar, welche signifikante Einflussgrößen auf die Verzugsausbildung detektieren. Der Vorteil derartiger simulationsgestützter Analysemethoden gegenüber rein experimentellen Ansätzen wird diskutiert. Aufgrund der heutigen Verfügbarkeit spezialisierter anwenderfreundlicher Schweißsimulationssoftware und günstiger Rechenressourcen macht die Industrie in den letzten Jahren immer mehr von den zahlreichen Vorteilen einer virtuellen Prozessauslegung mit Hilfe der Schweißsimulation Gebrauch. Komplexe Praxisanwendungen können heutzutage innerhalb von 1-2 Wochen unter Berücksichtigung aller Arbeitsschritte bearbeitet werden. Die Anforderungen an den Anwender seitens der Numerik und Materialmodellierung hat sich drastisch verringert, wohingegen ein gewisses Maß an Wissen und Erfahrung vom simulierten Prozess weiterhin entscheidend für den Erfolg der Simulation ist. Am Beispiel des Einspritzventils konnte das Potential einer virtuellen Prozessauslegung anschaulich aufgezeigt werden.
Der Beitrag stellt am Beispiel eines für adaptive MSG-Lichtbogen-Engspaltschweißungen im Dickblech-Bereich entwickelten Versuchsstandes ein Automatisierungskonzept für vernetzte kommerziell verfügbare Anlagenkomponenten über ein zentrales echtzeitfähiges Steuersystem auf Basis des EtherCAT-Protokolls vor. Der Fokus liegt hierbei auf der Eignung für Aufgaben im Bereich der Qualitätssicherung sowie Forschung und Entwicklung leistungsfähiger Algorithmen zur Prozessüberwachung und -regelung. Die sich daraus ergebende Vielzahl zu messender und steuernder Parameter stellen vor allem in Verbindung mit präzisen und hochfrequenten Messgeräten höchste Anforderungen an die Datenverarbeitung sowohl in Echtzeit als auch zur Auswertung nach dem Prozess. Die Einbindung etablierter Programmiertools wie MATLAB/Simulink in gängigen Automatisierungsstandards ermöglichen flexible und innovative Forschungsarbeit.
Durch die automatisierte Datenerfassung in einer übergelagerten Datenbank stehen die Messungen sämtlicher Schweißvorgänge jederzeit zur Entwicklung neuer Abläufe zur Prozessteuerung und -regelung oder zur Verbesserung der bestehenden Algorithmen zur Verfügung, was insbesondere den sukzessiven Aufbau komplexer Regressionsmodelle aus der Anwendung heraus ermöglicht.
Als Applikationsbeispiel wird die Entwicklung eines dynamischen Lichtbogensensors vorgestellt und diskutiert. Die Versuchsdurchführung mit dem Ziel der Ableitung nichtlinearer Regressionsmodelle erfolgt automatisiert mithilfe eines optischen Sensors. Der Vorteil dieses Verfahrens liegt dabei neben der schnellen Umsetzbarkeit in der direkten Korrelation der Messwerte zu realen physikalischen Systemgrößen und der schnellen Adaption auf unterschiedliche Schweißparameter und -prozesse.
This paper presents an approach to reconstruct the three-dimensional transient temperature field for fusion welding processes as input data for computational weld mechanics. The methodology to solve this inverse heat conduction problem fast and automatically focuses on analytical temperature field models for volumetric heat sources and application of global optimisation. The important issue addressed here is the question which experimental data is needed to guarantee a unique reconstruction of the experimental temperature field. Different computational-experimental test cases are executed to determine the influence of various sets of discrete experimental data on the solvability of the optimisation problem. The application of energy distributions utilised for laser beam welding allows reconstructing the temperature field efficiently. Furthermore, the heat input into the workpiece determined by the simulation contributes to the evaluation of the thermal efficiency of the welding process.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is applied in evaluating environmental impacts of state-of-the-art welding technologies. Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW), Laser Arc-Hybrid Welding (LAHW) and two Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) variants are used to join a plate of 20 mm thick structural steel. The LCA results indicate that for 1 m weld seam, MMAW causes the highest environmental impacts in global warming potential (GWP), eutrophication potential (EP), acidification potential (AP), and photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) among the selected processes, and the LAHW variant performances the least. Filler material and electricity consumptions generally dominate the impacts and reach shares of up to 80% and 61% in the respective impact categories. However, electrode coating consumption in MMAW remarkably contributes impacts on AP and EP, for instance 52% of AP and 76% of EP. Strategies for improvement of the applied welding technologies are discussed.
A combined experimental numerical approach is applied to determine the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-parameter K for different strength low-alloy steels of grade S355J2+N and S960QL as well as the super martensitic filler CN13-4-IG containing 13 wt% chromium and 4 wt% nickel. The thermo-physical analyses were conducted using a Gleeble® 3500 facility. The thermal histories of the specimens to be tested were extracted from corresponding simulations of a real gas metal arc weldment. In contrast to common TRIP-experiments which are based on complex specimens a simple flat specimen was utilized together with an engineering evaluation method. The evaluation method was validated with literature values for the TRIP-parameter. It could be shown that the proposed approach enables a correct description of the TRIP behavior.
Die in dieser Studie vorgestellte einfache Probengeometrie zeigt sich in Verbindung mit der
angewandten Versuchs- und Auswertemethodik geeignet, um den umwandlungsplastischen (TRIP)-Parameter K unter Verwendung des thermomechanischen Simulators Gleeble® 3500 experimentell zu bestimmen.
Der TRIP-Parameter K wurde für die Grundwerkstoffe S355J2+N und S960QL, sowie für den hochlegierten Zusatzwerkstoff CN13-4 -IG bestimmt.
Die numerische Einflussanalyse zeigt, dass bei der Berechnung von (Oberflächen-)Schweißeigen-spannungen die Vernachlässigung des TRIP-Effektes kaum einen Einfluss auf die Längseigenspannungen hat. Im Gegensatz da zu resultieren gegenüber dem Referenzfall signifikante Abweichungen der
Quereigenspannungen im und um den Schweißnahtbereich.
Die Verdopplung des TRIP-Parameters K gegenüber dem Referenzfall hat nur einen vernachlässigbaren Einfluss auf die Längs- sowie Quereigenspannungen auf der Oberfläche.
Für eine qualitative und quantitative numerische Nachbildung der experimentell bestimmten Längs- und Quereigenspannungen ist die Berücksichtigung der Größenordnung des material-abhängigen TRIP-Parameters K notwendig.
Numerical Sensitivity Analysis of TRIP-Parameter K on Weld Residual Stresses and Weld Distortion
(2016)
A combined experimental numerical approach is applied for a sensitivity analysis of the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-parameter K on welding residual stresses and welding distortion for the welding of the low-alloyed high-strength S960QOL with the high-alloyed hig-strength filler material CN13-4-IG. A thermo-mechanical FE model of a real GMA welding process was experimentally validated against termperature field, X-Ray stress measurments and optical distortion measurement. Within the sensititvity analysis K was varied and the influence on the calculated welding residual stresses and welding distortion is evaluated by performing corresponding FEA. The correct order of K magnitude is necessary in order to reproduce the residual stresses qualitatively and quantitatively. For the sufficient reproducing of the welding distortion the transformation induced plasticity can be neglected.
Numerical sensitivity analysis of TRIP-parameter K on weld residual stresses for steel S355J2+ N
(2016)
A combined experimental numerical approach is applied for sensitivity analysis of the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-parameter K on weld residual stresses for welding of structural steel of grade S355J2+N. K was determined experimentally using the Gleeble 3500 facility. A thermomechanical FE model of the real welding process was experimentally validated against temperature field and X-ray stress measurements. Within sensitivity analyses K was varied by several orders of magnitude and the influence on the calculated residual stresses is evaluated by performing corresponding FEA. The correct order of magnitude is sufficient to reproduce the residual stresses qualitatively and quantitatively.
Selecting a welding process for a given application is crucial with respect to the sustainability of part manufacturing. Unfortunately, since welding processes are evaluated by a number of criteria, preferences for one or the other process can be contradictory. However, the prevalent procedure of weight assignment for each criterion is subjective and does not provide information about the entire solution space. From the perspective of a decision maker it is important to be able to assess the entire set of possible weightings and answer the question which welding process is optimal for which set of weights. This issue is investigated by means of a weight space partitioning approach. Two welding processes are considered with respect to three criteria that reflect their economic and environmental performance. In order to find the most sustainable welding process the underlying weight space partition is evaluated.
Increasing performance and energy efficiency of Gas Metal Arc Welding by a high power tandem process
(2016)
Standard Gas Metal Arc Welding (Standard GMAW) and a high power Tandem GMAW (TGMAW) process are evaluated with respect to energy efficiency. Current, voltage and overall equipment power are measured and energy consumption is determined. The new key performance indicator Electrical Deposition Efficiency is introduced to reflect the energy efficiency of GMAW processes. Additionally, wallplug efficiency of the equipment is determined in order to identify the overall energy consumption. Results show that energy efficiency as well as economic process performance can be significantly increased by application of the TGMAW process. Furthermore findings indicate that wall-plug efficiency of the equipment is independent of power level and material transfer mode. A metal plate of 30 mm thick structural steel is joined by Standard GMAW and TGMAW to demonstrate the total energy savings for a real weld. Electricity consumption is reduced by more than 20 % using the high power TGMAW process.
A combined experimental and numerical approach is applied for a numerical analysis of the non-uniform martensitic transformation kinetic on welding residual stresses and distortion of a single pass weld. The (γ → α)-transformation kinetic within the weld pool region is governed by a non-uniform distribution of the elements chromium and nickel. The single-pass weld was performed by use of the low-alloyed high-strength steel S960QL with the high-alloyed high-strength filler wire CN 13/4-IG®. A thermo-mechanical FE model of the welding process was experimentally validated against temperature field, solid phase distribution, transformation behaviour, X-Ray stress measurements and transient optical distortion measurements.
The experimentally determined and calculated weld residual stresses and transient distortion are in good agreement. It can be shown that the change on the (γ → α)-transformation kinetic driven by the inhomogeneous distribution of the chemical contents causes a strong influence on the weld residual stresses within the volume of the weld pool, which could promote crack propagation within the solidified weld pool by use of high-alloyed filler materials. Furthermore, a significant influence on the development of the transient welding distortion is visible. This influence should be respected during numerically calculation of welding distortion in case of multi-pass welding using interpass temperatures and high-alloyed filler materials.
Welding is the most important joining technology. In the steel construction
industry, e.g. production of windmill sections, welding accounts for a
main part of the manufacturing costs and resource consumption. Moreover, social
issues attached to welding involve working in dangerous environments. This aspect
has unfortunately been neglected so far, in light of a predominant focus on economics
combined with a lack of suitable assessment methods. In this chapter,
exemplary welding processes are presented that reduce the environmental and
social impacts of thick metal plate welding. Social and environmental Life Cycle
Assessments for a thick metal plate joint are conducted for the purpose of
expressing and analysing the social and environmental impacts of welding.
Furthermore, it is shown that state-of-the-art technologies like Gas Metal Arc
Welding with modified spray arcs and Laser Arc-Hybrid Welding serve to increase
social and environmental performance in contrast to common technologies, and
therefore offer great potential for sustainable manufacturing.
Die transiente nichtlineare 3D-Wärmeleitungsgleichung wurde zur numerischen Lösung mittels der Finite-Elemente-Methode im Ort und mittels explizitem Eulerschema in der Zeit diskretisiert. Der resultierende Algorithmus wurde in ein Computerprogramm überführt wobei besonderer Wert auf paralleles Rechnen gelegt wurde. Das Programm wurde auf die numerische Berechnung eines schweißtypischen transienten Temperaturfelds angewandt. Die Rechenzeit und Skalierbarkeit des Computerprogramms bezüglich der Anzahl verwendeter CPU Kerne wurde untersucht und mit dem kommerziellen FEM Programm Abaqus 6.14 verglichen. Die Anwendung der expliziten Zeitintegration resultiert in verbesserter Skalierbarkeit bezüglich der Anzahl verwendeter CPU Kerne und Rechenzeitersparnis gegenüber der in Abaqus implementierten impliziten Zeitintegrationsmethode.
An approach to develop an arc sensor for gap-width estimation during automated NG-GMAW with a weaving electrode motion is introduced by combining arc sensor readings with optical measurement of the groove shape to allow precise analyses of the process. The two test specimen welded for this study were designed to feature a variable groove geometry in order to maximize efficiency of the conducted experimental efforts, resulting in 1696 individual weaving cycle records with associated arc sensor measurements, process parameters and groove shape information. Gap width was varied from 18 to 25 mm and wire feed rates in the range of 9 to 13 m/min were used in the course of this study. Artificial neural networks were used as a modelling tool to derive an arc sensor for estimation of gap width suitable for online process control that can adapt to changes in process parameters as well as changes in the weaving motion of the electrode. Wire feed rate, weaving current, sidewall dwell currents and angles were used as inputs to calculate the gap width. Evaluation the proposed arc sensor model show very good estimation capabilities for parameters sufficiently covered during experiments.
Zur Effizienzsteigerung beim Einsatz von Lichtbogenverfahren für Fügeaufgaben im Dickblechbereich werden häufig angepasste Verfahren mit möglichst geringer Nahtquerschnittsfläche angewendet, beispielsweise das MSG-Engspaltschweißen für I-Nähte. Die Herausforderung für die Automatisierung des Verfahrens besteht neben der komplexen Prozessführung auch in der oftmals schlechten Zugänglichkeit der Prozesszone für optische Sensorik, weswegen verstärkt auf prozessorientierte Sensorik zurückgegriffen wird. Zur Steigerung des Prozessverständnisses und Entwicklung neuer Regelungskonzepte wurde ein Versuchsaufbau umgesetzt, der sowohl optische Messsysteme als auch prozessorientierte Sensorik in einer gemeinsamen Steuerungsumgebung vereint. Die umfassende prozessbegleitende Sensorik ermöglicht die sukzessive Erweiterung des Prozesswissens, welches direkt zur Umsetzung neuer Steuer- und Regelalgorithmen basierend auf Regressionsmodellen genutzt werden kann. Der gemeinsame Einsatz optischer und prozessorientierter Sensorik wurde zur Auslegung eines Lichtbogensensors zur Höhenführung genutzt. Die Versuchsdurchführung mit dem Ziel der Ableitung nichtlinearer Regressionsmodelle erfolgt automatisiert mit Hilfe eines optischen Sensors. Der Vorteil dieses Verfahrens liegt dabei neben der schnellen Umsetzbarkeit in der direkten Korrelation der Messwerte zu realen physikalischen Systemgrößen und der schnellen Adaption auf unterschiedliche Schweißparameter und -prozesse.
Single-wire gas metal arc welding (SGMAW) and high power tandem GMAW (TGMAW) are evaluated with respect to energy efficiency. The key performance indicator electrical deposition efficiency is applied to reflect the energy efficiency of GMAW in different material transfer modes. Additionally, the wall-plug efficiency of the equipment is determined in order to identify the overall energy consumption. The results show that energy efficiency can be increased by 24% and welding time is reduced over 50% by application of the tandem processes. A comparative life cycle assessment of a 30-mm-thick weld is conducted to investigate the influences of the energy efficiency on the environmental impacts. The environmental impacts on the categories global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, and photochemical ozone creation potential can be reduced up to 11% using an energy-efficient TGMAW process.
This paper investigates gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with respect to energy consumption and its associated environmental impacts. Different material transfer modes and power levels for single wire GMAW (SGMAW) and tandem GMAW (TGMAW) are evaluated by means of the indicator electrical deposition efficiency. Furthermore, the wall-plug efficiency of the equipment is measured in order to describe the total energy consumption from the electricity grid. The results show that the energy efficiency is highly affected by the respective process and can be significantly enhanced by a TGMAW process. The wall-plug efficiency of the equipment shows no significant dependency on the power range or the material transfer mode. Moreover, the method of life cycle assessment (LCA) is adopted in order to investigate the influences of energy efficient welding on the environmental impacts. In the comparative LCA study, the demand of electrical energy is reduced up to 24%. In consequence, the indicator values for global warming potential (100), acidification potential, eutrophication potential, and photochemical ozone creation potential are reduced up to 11%.
Evaluating innovative process technologies has become highly important within the last decades. As standard tools different Life Cycle Assessment methods have been established, which are continuously improved. While those are designed for evaluating single processes they run into difficulties when it comes to assessing environmental impacts of process innovations at macroeconomic level. In this paper we develop a multi-step evaluation framework building on multi regional inputeoutput data that allows estimating macroeconomic impacts of new process technologies, considering the network characteristics of the global economy.
Our procedure is as follows: i) we measure differences in material usage of process alternatives, ii) we identify where the standard processes are located within economic networks and virtually replace those by innovative process technologies, iii) we account for changes within economic systems and evaluate impacts on emissions.
Within this paper we exemplarily apply the methodology to two recently developed innovative technologies: longitudinal large diameter steel pipe welding and turning of high-temperature resistant materials. While we find the macroeconomic impacts of very specific process innovations to be small, its conclusions can significantly differ from traditional process based approaches. Furthermore, information gained from the methodology provides relevant additional insights for decision makers extending the picture gained from traditional process life cycle assessment.
Automatisierungs- und Regelkonzepte für das MSG-Engspaltschweißen - Pendel- und Füllgradregelung
(2018)
Das MSG-Engspaltschweißen eignet sich auf Grund der I-Nahtvorbereitung besonders für das wirtschaftliche Fügen bei hohen Blechdicken über 100 mm und bietet darüber hinaus zusätzliche technologische Vorteile. Für die automatisierte Anwendung des Verfahrens unter Produktionsbedingungen muss dabei die Prozesssicherheit auch für mitunter große Variationen der Spaltbreite entlang der Schweißnaht gesichert bleiben. In erster Linie betrifft dies bei mechanischer Auslenkung der Drahtelektrode die Adaption der Pendelbewegung auf die jeweilige Spaltbreite um eine ausreichende Flankenanbindung zu garantieren. Für die Online-Regelung der Pendelbewegung mittels Lichtbogensensorik wurde eine Methode implementiert die die notwendigen Pendelwinkel an jeder Nahtflanke unabhängig ermittelt und darüber hinaus Fehlstellungen des Brenners sowie Veränderungen des Kontaktrohrabstandes und der Prozessparameter eigenständig kompensiert. Eine Füllgradregelung auf Grundlage optischer Erfassung und Auswertung der Schweißnahtgeometrie wurde zusätzlich eingesetzt um bei veränderlichen Nahtquerschnittsflächen einen vorgegebenen, gleichbleibenden Lagenaufbau zu erzielen.
An approach to develop an arc sensor for gap width estimation during automated NG-GMAW with a weaving electrode motion is introduced by combining arc sensor readings with optical measurements of the groove shape to allow precise analyses of the process. The two test specimen welded for this study were designed to feature a variable groove geometry in order to maximize efficiency of the conducted experimental efforts, resulting in 1696 individual weaving cycle records with associated arc sensor measurements, process parameters and groove shape information. Gap width was varied from 18 mm to 25 mm and wire feed rates in the range of 9 m/min to 13 m/min were used in the course of this study. Artificial neural networks were applied as a modelling tool to derive an arc sensor for estimation of gap width suitable for online process control that can adapt to changes in process parameters as well as changes in the weaving motion of the electrode. Wire feed rate, weaving current, sidewall dwell currents and angles were defined as inputs to calculate the gap width. The evaluation of the proposed arc sensor model shows very good estimation capabilities for parameters sufficiently covered during the experiments.
The development within the offshore wind energy sector towards more powerful turbines combined with increasing water depth for new wind parks is challenging both, the designer as well as the manufacturer of support structures. Besides XL-monopiles the jacket support structure is a reasonable alternative due to the high rigidity combined with low material consumption. However, the effort for manufacturing of the hollow section joints reduces the economic potential of jacket structures significantly. Therefore, a changeover from an individual towards a serial production based on automated manufactured tubular joints combined with standardized pipes must be achieved. Hence, this paper addresses the welding process chain of automated manufactured tubular joints including digitization of the relevant manufacturing parameters such as laser scanning of the weld seam geometry. Additionally, a methodology for the computation of the notch radius as well as the weld seam angle is presented based on the scanned profiles of three analysis points of an automated manufactured tubular X-joint. Subsequently, these parameters are considered within the notch stress approach based fatigue design and their impact is quantified by a comparison with the structural stress approach using equivalent stress concentration factors.