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Controlling the level of mostly detrimental residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time and cost consuming post processing may be prevented. Therefore, in this study, the approach using suitable alloy concepts with reduced phase transformation temperatures has been evaluated concerning the interactions between transformation temperature, transformation kinetics and resulting residual stresses. Ideal tools for observing these phenomena in-situ are diffraction techniques. For that purpose, a special setup was developed allowing for localized observation of phase transformation kinetics during a real welding process by energy dispersive synchrotron diffraction (EDXRD). In the present work, this setup was successfully applied for the first time in order to characterize a selection of alloys especially designed for residual stress control. The results demonstrate that in-process observation is highly suitable for characterizing and discussing phase transformation sensitive phenomena like residual stress formation. Furthermore, it was proven that residual stresses can be effectively controlled by means of an adjusted alloy design.
Crack and fatigue resistance are relevant evaluation criteria for welded joints and are decreased by tensile residual
stresses resulting from the welding and cooling process, while compressive residual stresses can have a positive
influence on the characteristics mentioned. In order to generate compressive residual stresses, a set of post weld
treatment procedures is available, like shot peening, hammering, etc. These procedures have the disadvantage that
they are time and cost extensive and have to be applied after welding. As another point, such technologies can only
produce compressive stresses at the top surface, i.e. can only contribute to the reduction of the risk of cracks initiated
at the surface, like fatigue cracks. A chance to generate compressive stresses over the complete weld joint during the
welding procedure is offered by the so-called Low Transformation Temperature (LTT -) filler wires. Compared to
conventional wires, these materials show lower phase transformation temperatures, which can work against coolingrelated
tensile stresses, resulting from respective shrinkage restraint. In consequence, distinct compressive residual
stresses can be observed within the weld and adjacent areas. The strength of these fillers makes them potentially
applicable to high-strength steel welding. Welds produced with different LTT filler wires have shown different levels
and distributions of the resulting residual stresses depending on the specific transformation temperature. The
transformation temperatures are determined by temperature measurement. Classical X-ray diffraction as well as
diffraction methods using high energy synchrotron radiation have been used for residual stress analysis. By means of
high energy synchrotron diffraction in reflection mode residual stress depth gradients can be determined nondestructively.
The phase selective nature of the diffraction measurements enables the simultaneous determination of
the phase specific residual stresses of all contributing crystalline phases within one experiment. The application of
white beam diffraction implies recording of a multitude of diffraction lines within the energy range of the provided
energy spectrum of the white beam. By this means phase specific residual stress depth distributions up to distances of
150 ìm below the surface can be analysed for steel using the energy dispersive set-up of the HMI-beamline EDDI at
the Bessy site, Berlin, providing an energy range between 20-150 keV. As a side effect quantitative phase analysis can
be carried out using white energy dispersive diffraction e.g. the determination of the content of retained austenite in the
weld.
High-strength fine-grained structural steels have great potential for weight-optimized, efficient structures in many modern steel applications. Further advances in efficiency can be achieved through additive manufacturing and bionic design. Commercial high-strength filler materials for wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) are already provided by the consumable producers. Today, application would be strictly limited due to absence of quantitative findings or any guidelines for the industry regarding welding-related stresses and component safety during manufacturing and service. Hence, process- and material-related influences and design-related restraint conditions associated with formation of residual stresses and cold cracking risk are investigated. The aim is the accessibility of special WAAM self-restraining cold cracking tests and easy applicable processing recommendations, enabling an economical, fit-for-purpose and crack-safe WAAM of high-strength steels. This first study focuses on determination of interactions between WAAM process parameters, resulting layer geometry, microstructure and residual stresses, analyzed via X-ray diffraction. Defined reference specimens are automated welded using a special WAAM solid wire (yield strength >820 MPa). Geometric properties can be specifically adjusted by wire feed and welding speed, but cannot be varied arbitrarily, since a high heat input causes local overheating, inadmissible changes of microstructure and mechanical properties, defects and comparable high tensile residual stresses.
Determination of residual stress evolution during repair welding of high-strength steel components
(2022)
During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable weld defects may be found. An economical solution is local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to high shrinkage restraints of repair weld and sur- rounding structure, high global and local welding stresses superimpose, and may lead to cracking and component failure, especially in connection with the degraded microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process. Component-related investigations of high-strength steels (FOSTA P1311/ IGF20162N) focus on welding residual stress evolution during local thermal gouging and rewelding. In this study, repair welding of S500MLO (EN 10225) is carried out using in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex- situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) to analyse strains and stresses. Self-restrained slit specimen geometries were identified representing defined rigidity conditions of repair welds of real components, which were quantified using the restraint intensity concept. The specimens were rewelded with constant welding heat control and parameters. Weld specimens exhibited significantly increased transverse residual stresses with higher transverse restraint intensities, in the weld metal, and in the heat affected zone. Transverse stresses along the weld seam decrease at the weld seam ends leading to different stress state during gouging and welding. XRD analysis of the longitudinal and transverse local residual stresses after cooling to RT showed a good comparability with global DIC analyses.
Controlling the level of mostly detrimental residual stresses already during the welding process would be highly attractive as time and cost consuming post processing may be prevented. Innovative Low Transformation Temperature (LTT-) filler materials are specially designed for Controlling weld residual stresses by means of adjusted martensite formation already during welding. Numerous publications can be found on this issue, but they provide only little insight into the interaction between martensite formation and resulting welding residual stresses. Within this study a component weld test was performed in a special large-scale testing facility. In-situ load analysis revealed that the amount of stress reduction during deposition of the individual weld runs is dependent on the weld volume undergoing phase transformation related to the shrinking volume. The residual stresses found alter welding show that the desired residual stress control by using LTT alloys is sensitive to welding boundary conditions (i. e. weld geometry, plate thickness) and to be evaluated separately for varying weld scenarios.
The results reported in this research study are part of a larger EU RFCS (Research Fund for Coal and Steel) project where the aim is to study the fatigue behavior of improved welds in high strength steels by utilizing different improvement techniques. In this particular study LTT (Low Transformation Temperature) weld filler material have been investigated and their possibility to improve the fatigue strength. The characteristic of these filler material is that they undergo phase transformation at temperature close to room temperature which will reduce the tensile residual stress in the weld and in some cases result in compressive residual stresses. Two different LTT alloy compositions have been developed, with different Ms (Martensite Start) temperatures in order to study the amount of tensile/compressive residual stresses produced by these wires. Welding residual stress measurements were carried out by X-ray diffraction technique. Plates with welded longitudinal attachments were fabricated in 700 MPa and 960 MPa steel grades using different LTT filler materials. These specimens were fatigue tested in constant and variable amplitude loading and the fatigue test results were compared with results from specimen welded with conventional weld filler material.
Residual stress engineering in welding becomes more and more prominent as the use of tailored materials, e.g., high-strength steels, calls for maximum utilization of the material properties. As a consequence, residual stresses have to be considered as design criterion. Moreover, it may be utilized to improve the material's performance. Low transformation temperature alloys are a smart approach to control the residual stresses already during the welding process avoiding time-consuming postweld treatments. This paper gives an overview about the progress made in research in this topic with special focus on residual stresses. Basics as well as important developments will be addressed.
The application of high-strength fine-grained structural steels with yield strengths greater than or equal to 690 MPa expands because of present light weight design trends. The requirements regarding the welded components safety increased due to high loading capacity. This determines a sustainable and economic application as well. However, high welding residual stresses could diminish the components safety, especially due to high restraint conditions in component or repair welds. Therefore, this work is concerned with global and local welding stresses, especially crack-critical welding stresses in the HAZ and while root welding due to the restraint conditions. Restraint intensities of real components were analysed and realised with two different weld tests, alongside two different plate dimensions and steel grades. A comparison of the test results showed several significant effects for heat control and restraint intensity regarding restraint forces and local welding stresses. Among these effects, substantial influences were found for the filler metal selection with partially altered results for root and filler beads. Local stresses of weld seam and HAZ were affected differently.
Present trends to lightweight design lead to an expanding relevance of high-strength fine-grained structural steels especially in mobile crane constructions. With growing material strength, the challenge for welding fabrication increases, since high loading capacities and safety requirements have to be accomplished. The utilisation of the high strength potential often requires complex constructions associated with high restraint conditions while welding. Increased residual stresses may occur due to superimposing reaction and restraint stresses, which have to be quantified and evaluated to ensure the safety and integrity of high-strength steel constructions. Particularly, the scope of residual stresses has to be taken into account for different effects in the HAZ, notches, weld and base metal. Commonly, conservative assumptions of residual stresses lead to distinct underestimations of the load bearing capacity particularly for welded high-strength steel constructions. This study concludes results of recent works of the researchers regarding the complex interaction among heat control, material and restraint intensity on the residual stress state in welded components. These analyses are extended by further experiments. Based on the obtained major effects, an approach for a welding residual stress assessment regarding component design according to prevailing standards for crane construction, an important application for high-strength steels, is presented.
In an increasing number of modern steel applications, high-strength structural steel grades are demanded to meet specifications regarding a high load-bearing capacity and a low operating weight. Lightweight design rules enhance the safety requirements, especially for welded joints. Besides a higher cracking risk for high-strength steel welds, the formation of tensile residual stresses might lead to fracture due to overloading or premature failure if not adequately considered. In this study, a stress-strain analysis was conducted at component-related structures from S960QL using digital image correlation while preheating, welding and cooling adjacent to the weld seam. X-ray diffraction analysis of the local residual stresses in the weld seam showed a good comparability with global analyses using either a DIC system or a special testing facility, which allowed in situ measurements of welding loads. By analysing two different seam geometries, it could be shown that lower multi-axial stresses arise if a narrower weld groove is used. Comparative analyses revealed a direct correlation of the local residual stresses in the weld with transverse shrinkage restraint, whereas the residual stress level in the HAZ is significantly affected by the bending restraint of the weld construction and the occurring bending stresses, respectively.