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Offshore wind turbines continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate offshore foundations concepts like monopiles, tripods, or jackets. These components are typically constructed using submerged arc welding (SAW) with high-strength thick steel plates like the S420ML. During welding, the occurrence of delayed hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC) must be anticipated. HAC is a critical combination of the local hydrogen concentration within a susceptible microstructure under certain mechanical load, i.e., the occurring (welding) residual stresses. The welding sequence of the thick-walled plates complicates the residual stress distribution due to the necessary repeated thermal cycling, i.e., welding seam/layer deposition to fill the joint. For that purpose, SAW with two-wire-technique was used to weld a specially designed and prototype-like mock-up of a real component with a thickness of 50 mm, filled with over 20 passes and a seam length of 1000 mm. Additional welded stiffeners simulated the effect of a high restraint, to achieve critical HAC conditions. The necessity of a minimum waiting time (MWT) before the NDT can be conducted (to exclude HAC) was critically verified by the application of ultrasonic testing of the welded joint at different time-steps of the NDT of up to 48 h after the completion welding. The residual stresses were determined by a robot XRD goniometer. Tensile residual stresses up to the yield limit are found both in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone. Numerical modeling allowed the qualitative estimation of the hydrogen diffusion in the weld. No noticeable HAC occurrence was identified and confirms the high cracking resistance of the investigated material. Finally, the applicability of the MWT concept should be critically discussed.
Offshore-Windenergieanlagen erfordern Gründungskonzepte aus unterpulver-(UP-)geschweißten Dickblechen (bspw. der Güte S420ML). Während der Schweißfertigung kann eine zeitverzögerte wasserstoffunterstützte Kaltrissbildung auftreten, deren Bewertung aufgrund der Bauteilgröße von Offshore-Strukturen sehr komplex ist. Deswegen wurde eine bauteilähnliche Geometrie (Mock-Up) entwickelt, um reale Steifigkeitsverhältnisse auf den Labormaßstab zu übertragen. Zusätzliche Versteifungen simulieren die Wirkung einer Einspannung bzw. Schrumpfbehinderung der Schweißnaht. Über die Verwendung von Schweißpulvern mit definierter Feuchte wurden zudem ein Extremszenario der Wasserstoffaufnahme simuliert. Entsprechend der vorgegebenen Mindestwartezeit für die ZfP von bis zu 48 h wurde die Schweißnaht zerstörungsfrei mit Phased-Array-Ultraschall-Prüfung (PAUT) geprüft und die Eigenspannungen über Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD) bestimmt. Zusätzlich wurde die Wasserstoffverteilung in der Schweißverbindung numerisch simuliert. Außer zulässigen Defekten (wie Poren), wurde keine verzögerte Kaltrissbildung in den Mock-Ups festgestellt, was auf hohe Rissbeständigkeit hindeutet.
Die Verwendung hochfester Feinkornbaustähle hat für viele Anwendungen des Stahlbaus ein großes Potenzial für gewichtsoptimierte, effiziente Strukturen mit ho-her mechanischer Beanspruchbarkeit. Weitere Zugewinne an Effizienz sind durch generative Fertigungsschritte sowie bionische Bauweisen erzielbar. Hierzu stehen bereits kommerzielle hochfeste drahtförmige Zusatzwerkstoffe für formgebendes MSG-Schweißen zur Verfügung. Dem Einsatz stehen noch fehlende quantitative Aussagen zu den fertigungsbedingten Beanspruchungen und der Bauteilsicherheit während Herstellung und Betrieb im Wege. Dies betrifft insbesondere prozess- sowie materialbedingte Einflüsse und die konstruktive Schrumpfbehinderung verbunden mit der Ausbildung hoher Zugeigenspannungen und damit zusammenhängenden Kaltrissbildung.
Hierfür wurden im Projekt detaillierte und anwenderbezogene Kenntnisse zu den komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Schweißprozess und Wärmeführung während der Fertigung, der metallurgischen Vorgänge und insbesondere der vorliegenden konstruktiven Einflüsse auf die entstehenden Eigenspannungen erarbeitet, um ein frühzeitiges Bauteilversagen aufgrund eines hohen fertigungsbedingten Beanspruchungsniveaus bis hin zu einer Rissbildung während der Fertigung sicher zu vermeiden. Gleichzeitig wurden die Einflüsse auf die mechanisch-technologischen Gütewerte systematisch analysiert. Zudem wurden die Auswirkungen trennender Verfahren durch Entfernen der Substratplatte sowie durch die spanende Bearbeitung der Vorformlinge zu Endbauteilgeometrien geklärt, da diese unmittelbar den Eigenspannungszustand beeinflussen und deutlichen Verzug der Bauteile auslösen.
Für das generative Schweißen konnten Verarbeitungsempfehlungen sowie Normenvorgaben erarbeitet werden. Dies hilft insbesondere KMU eine wirtschaftliche, beanspruchungsgerechte und risssichere generative Fertigung von Bauteilen aus hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen zu ermöglichen.
The use of Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler materials is an innovative way to reduce welding residual stresses. The generation of compressive residual stresses in the weld and heat-affected zone can lead to an improvement of the fatigue life of high-strength welds. However, high-alloy filler metals can be prone to solidification cracking. Two important LTT alloys were evaluated under variable welding and loading parameters using the Modified Varestraint/Transvarestraint (MVT) test. Initially conflicting results were interpreted using a newly developed image-based crack detection routine [1]. Based on the melt pool dimensions, the shape of the isotherms is reconstructed, and the theoretical crack growth along numerically determined crystallization paths is considered in relation to the cracks observed. Decreasing welding speeds with simultaneously higher heat input promote crack formation with increasing strain rate.
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) enables the efficient production of weight-optimized modern engineering structures. Further increases in efficiency can be achieved by using high-strength structural steels. Commercial welding consumables for WAAM are already available on the market. Lack of knowledge and guidelines regarding welding residual stress and component safety during production and operation leads to severely limited use for industry applications. The sensitive microstructure of high-strength steels carries a high risk of cold cracking; therefore, residual stresses play a crucial role. For this reason, the influences of the material, the WAAM process, and the design on the formation of residual stresses and the risk of cold cracking are being investigated. The material used has a yield strength of over 800 MPa. This strength is adjusted via solid solution strengthening and a martensitic phase transformation. The volume expansion associated with martensite formation has a significant influence on the residual stresses. The focus of the present investigation is on the additive welding parameters and component design on their influence on hardness and residual stresses, which are analyzed by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD). Reference specimens (hollow cuboids) are welded fully automated with a systematic variation of heat control and design. Welding parameters and AM geometry are correlated with the resulting microstructure, hardness, and residual stress state. Increased heat input leads to lower tensile residual stresses which causes unfavorable microstructure and mechanical properties. The component design affects heat dissipation conditions and the intensity of restraint during welding and has a significant influence on the residual stress.
The contribution describes a newly developed software tool for crack identification and selection in Modified Varestraint Transvarestraint (MVT) testing. From the digital crack information, in addition to the classical results, such as Total Crack Length (TCL) and Maximum Crack Length (MCL), advanced evaluations can be applied, taking into account the loading and welding parameters. A numerical parameter study is conducted to demonstrate how the isolated variation of individual welding and loading parameters, affects the crack lengths that can potentially be expected based on the machine specifics. An alternative crack criterion is presented that evaluates the crack formation in relation to the machine behavior. Some examples demonstrate the possibilities and limitations of the approach. The criterion can be used to compare and transfer the results of different varestraint test variants.
Einfluss der Schweiß- und Prüfparameter bei der Heißrissbewertung hochfester Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe
(2023)
Die Heißrissneigung beim Schweißen kann mittels einer ganzen Reihe von Prüfverfahren ermittelt werden. Eine etablierte Methode ist die sogenannte Varestraint-Prüfung, welche auch an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) als modifizierter Varestraint/Transvarestraint-Test (MVT) zum Einsatz kommt. Die Ergebnisse von Varestraint-Prüfungen hängen jedoch stets in unter-schiedlichem Maße von der individuellen Prüfmaschinenauslegung und den verwendeten Prüfparametern ab. Dies kann zu einer uneinheitlichen Bewertung des Rissverhaltens führen, wenn die Risslänge konventionell als Kriterium für die Rissneigung herangezogen wird. Scheinbare Abhängigkeiten von Prozessparametern erschweren dann die Interpretation der Ergebnisse. Eine neuartige Bewertungsmethodik entkoppelt den Maschineneinfluss vom Materialverhalten und verwendet die Dehnrate als Risskriterium.
Although layer-based additive manufacturing methods such as laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) offer an immense geometrical freedom in design, they are typically subject to a build-up of internal stress (i.e. thermal stress) during manufacturing. As a consequence, significant residual stress (RS) is retained in the final part as a footprint of these internal stresses. Furthermore, localized melting and solidification inherently induce columnar-type grain growth accompanied by crystallographic texture. Although diffraction-based methods are commonly used to determine the RS distribution in PBF-LB parts, such features pose metrological challenges in their application. In theory, preferred grain orientation invalidates the hypothesis of isotropic material behavior underlying the common methods to determine RS. In this work, more refined methods are employed to determine RS in PBF-LB/M/IN718 prisms, based on crystallographic texture data. In fact, the employment of direction-dependent elastic constants (i.e. stress factors) for the calculation of RS results in insignificant differences from conventional approaches based on the hypothesis of isotropic mechanical properties. It can be concluded that this result is directly linked to the fact that the {311} lattice planes typically used for RS analysis in nickel-based alloys have high multiplicity and less strong texture intensities compared with other lattice planes. It is also found that the length of the laser scan vectors determines the surface RS distribution in prisms prior to their removal from the baseplate. On removal from the baseplate the surface RS considerably relaxes and/or redistributes; a combination of the geometry and the scanning strategy dictates the sub-surface RS distribution.
One of the main advantages of metal additive manufacturing (MAM) techniques is their ability to produce components with site-specific microstructural features. Nevertheless, microstructural defects and lack of repeatability are still major concerns in MAM. In this study, a laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) IN718 material, produced using two different scan length vectors, is investigated using Bragg-edge neutron 2D imaging (BENI) combined with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis. BENI is able to detect, on a macroscopic scale, process-induced changes in texture in a large field of view covering the entire sample (20×80 mm2). In addition, high-resolution BENI (HR-BENI), with a pixel size of 12.8 µm, provides a micro-scale examination of the local variations of texture and grain morphology, otherwise undistinguishable using the standard resolution. As such, HR-BENI offers a straightforward and detailed way of screening the integrity of MAM parts at cm-length scales.
Large scale hydrogen assisted cracking test for thick walled SAW joints for offshore applications
(2023)
Offshore wind turbines continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate offshore foundations concepts like monopiles, tripods or jackets. These components are typically submerged arc welded (SAW) high-strength thick steel plates like the S420ML. During welding, the occurrence of delayed hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC) must be anticipated. HAC is a critical combination of the local hydrogen concentration within a susceptible microstructure under certain mechanical load, i.e., the occurring (welding) residual stresses. The welding sequence of the thick-walled plates complicate the residual stress distribution due to the necessary repeated thermal cycling, i.e., welding seam / layer deposition to fill the joint. For that purpose, SAW with two-wire-technique was used to weld a specially designed and prototype-like mock-up of a real component with a thickness of 50 mm, filled more than 20 passes and a seam length of 1,000 mm. Additional welded stiffeners simulated the effect of a high restraint, to stimulate critical HAC conditions. The necessity of a minimum waiting time (MWT) before the NDT can be conducted (to exclude HAC) was critically verified by the application of ultrasonic testing of the welded joint at different time-steps of the NDT of 48 h after welding. The residual stresses were determined by a robot XRD goniometer. Tensile residual stresses up to the yield limit are found both in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone. Numerical modelling allowed the qualitative estimation of the hydrogen diffusion in the weld. A remarkable HAC occurrence was not identified and proves both, a certain resistance of the weld joint to HAC and the (questionable) duration of the MWT.
Die schädigende Wirkung von Wasserstoff auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften von Stählen ist zwar bekannt, aber noch immer nicht ausreichend erforscht. Die schnelle und sichere Markteinführung von Wasserstofftechnologien macht es erforderlich, dieses Thema genauer zu untersuchen. Im Allgemeinen wird dies oft als Wasserstoffversprödung bezeichnet. Daher ist es wünschenswert, eine Prüfmethode zu entwickeln, die auf einfache Weise die Materialeigenschaften unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre ermitteln kann. Derzeit werden mechanische Prüfungen unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre in Autoklaven durchgeführt. Für diese Technik ist eine aufwendige Hardware erforderlich, daher sind die Prüfungen teuer und die Prüfkapazitäten nur in geringem Umfang verfügbar. Die hier vorgestellte Prüfmethode verspricht einen zukunftsweisenden Ansatz zur Reduzierung von Kosten und Bearbeitungszeiten durch die Verwendung von Hohlkörpern, d.h. die Probe selbst stellt den Autoklav dar.
Die Wasserstoffinfrastruktur ist eine zentraler Bestandteil der erfolgreichen Umsetzung der wasserstoffbasierten Energiewende. Dabei bilden Ferngasleitungen quasi das "Rückgrat" der Transportinfrastruktur großer Gasmengen. Dabei müssen unter Umständen Reparaturen an den Pipelines durchgeführt werden. Dabei ist in der Erdgasinfrastruktur das Schweißen an in Betrieb befindlichen (d.h. von Gas durchflossenen) Pipelines Stand der Technik. Es ist jedoch vollkommen offen, inwieweit diese Technik auf die reine Wasserstoffpipelines übertragbar sind. Hierzu leistet das Projekt H2SuD wichtige Beiträge zur Aufklärung des Einfluss eines Reparaturschweißprozesses auf die Wasserstoffaufnahme und Degradation im Betrieb befindlicher H2 Gasleitungen.
It was found that there is a systematic dependence of the crack growth on the welding parameters as well as on the load. Decreasing welding speeds with simultaneously higher heat input promote crack formation with increasing strain rate.
Based on the results, a new crack criterion was finally selected which allows an extended assessment of the material behavior during the MVT-test. The threshold introduced can quantify the dependencies of the crack formation on the welding and testing parameters, which could not be comprehensively described with the conventional evaluation. In principle, the evaluation routine can also be transferred to other Varestraint or externally loaded hot cracking tests.
Influence of Residual Stresses on Stress Relief Cracking of Thick-Walled Creep-Resistant Steel Welds
(2023)
Controlling the residual stress level during welding of creep-resistant Cr-Mo-V steels is crucial to avoid so called stress relief cracking (SRC) during post weld heat treatment (PWHT) of large-scale components. In the present study, a laboratory scale test specimen (400 mm x 400 mm x 25 mm) was used to simulate thick-walled component welds made of 13CrMoV9-10. The aim was to identify the level and distribution of residual stresses to evaluate the suitability of the specimen for laboratory based SRC testing. High restraint was ensured by the specimen geometry with a narrow welding gap in the center. This gap was filled by submerged arc welding in a multi-layer technique. Two specimens were welded with identical parameters and compared in the as-welded state and after PWHT (705 °C for 10 h). Neutron diffraction was used to determine the residual stresses in the weld metal, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the base material at different depths longitudinal, transverse, and normal to the welding direction. The experiments were performed on the instrument E3 of the research reactor BERII of HZB Berlin, Germany. Complementarily, laboratory X-ray diffraction was applied to characterize the surface residual stresses. In the welded state, especially in the weld metal and the adjacent HAZ, the residual stress can reach the yield strength of the untreated material. The highest levels occur in the longitudinal direction. The transverse and normal directions are characterized by residual stress of lower magnitude. As expected, the residual stress is almost completely relieved after PWHT.
Additive manufacturing (AM) processes enable the efficient production of advanced constructions. Direct energy deposition processes such as wire and arc-based additive manufacturing (DED-arc) are important methods. The wire filler metals enable a wide range of materials. In addition, the arc process provides a high deposition rate compared to laser and powder-based processes. Furthermore, components can be manufactured near-net-shape, offering significant savings in cost, time, and resources. Combined with the use of high-strength steels to reduce wall or component thicknesses in the context of lightweight design, great opportunities for saving energy and resources can be achieved. In a joint project of BAM and Chemnitz University of Technology, the main influences and complex interactions of material, production process, design and processing steps on the residual stress level are investigated. The aim is to develop processing recommendations and a cold cracking test for economical processing and stress-related design of high-strength steels with DED-arc. This study focuses on residual stress analysis by neutron diffraction (ND) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) on defined test specimens. The ND analysis were performed at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) and the XRD analysis at BAM. The study shows a quantitative and qualitative comparison of the residual stress magnitudes and distribution between the component bulk (ND) and surface (XRD) analyses. The ND analysis reveals that in DED-arc AM walls the residual stresses dominate in the direction of welding and are negligibly small in each case transverse to the direction of welding. The topology of the analyzed residual stresses shows almost identical residual stress maps. In addition, the residual stresses are significantly influenced by the solid phase transformation of the material due to low cooling times in the area of the top layer.
Einfluss der Schweiß- und Prüfparameter bei der Heißrissbewertung hochfester Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe
(2023)
Die Heißrissneigung beim Schweißen kann mittels einer ganzen Reihe von Prüfverfahren ermittelt werden. Eine etablierte Methode ist die sogenannte Varestraint-Prüfung, welche auch an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) als modifizierter Varestraint/Transvarestraint-Test (MVT) zum Einsatz kommt. Die Ergebnisse von Varestraint-Prüfungen hängen jedoch stets in unterschiedlichem Maße von der individuellen Prüfmaschinenauslegung und den verwendeten Prüfparametern ab. Dies kann zu einer uneinheitlichen Bewertung des Rissverhaltens führen, wenn die Risslänge konventionell als Kriterium für die Rissneigung herangezogen wird. Scheinbare Abhängigkeiten von Prozessparametern erschweren dann die Interpretation der Ergebnisse. Eine neuartige Bewertungsmethodik entkoppelt den Maschineneinfluss vom Materialverhalten und verwendet die Dehnrate als Risskriterium in Analogie zu Prokhorovs Heißrissmodell. Die neue Auswertung wird anhand einer Studie hochfester Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe vorgestellt, deren Rissverhalten in Abhängigkeit der chemischen Zusammensetzung und der Schweißparameter bewertet wird.