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Tensile testing according to EN 10002-1 is one of the basic mechanical tests to characterise the mechanical properties of metallic materials. This testing procedure has been regularly under development for many decades in order to modify and amend it and to bring it up to an up to date standard. Today tensile testing for quality control in metals manufacturing industry is routinely performed automatically with computer controlled testing machines. Due to economical needs of industry proposals were made by a European Standard Committee to amend the standard EN 10002-1. A European research project with the acronym TENSTAND was started to validate the proposed modifications of the tensile testing standard. The work package 4 of the project was to validate the machine control characteristics. A comparison test program was started with ten partners, 4 test piece geometries and 3 test parameters for 6 materials, partly with upper and lower yield strength and partly with 0.2 % proof strength to compare experimental results according to the proposal to modify the standard EN 10002-1. Initially testing in the strain control mode was introduced as well as switching of the control mode to crosshead control 1 and switching of the testing speed at appropriate points during the test. The comparison test was evaluated statistically and scientifically. The following conclusions were derived from the comparison test and summarised as recommendations to the standard committees. The scatter of the material properties were not significantly reduced by introducing the amended testing procedure. Few of the reasons for the continuously observed scattercan be identified as follows: The material properties are observed to be widely dependent on the testing speed. As a consequence the range for the allowed testing speed must be reduced. The closed loop control was not optimised sufficiently in some tests, the use of complicated testing machine software led to misinterpretation of software commands, individual testing equipment and implementation of the tensile testing procedure led also to scatter of the material properties which lay in a range of few percent. This is blurred by the inhomogeneity of the material.
Microstructural and Mechanical Performance Assessment of Diffusion Bonded Bimetallic Model Discs
(2003)
The stability of microstructure and the microhardness of a NiCoCrAlY alloy was studied after thermal treatment at high temperatures and subsequent quenching into ice water. The alloy revealed mainly two ordered phases, a gamma' phase with L12 lattice structure and a beta phase with B2 structure. The gamma' phase is shown to become unstable in the temperature range between 1073 K and 1373 K where it undergoes an order-disorder phase transformation. The low transformation temperature compared to pure Ni3Al is ascribed to deviations from the Ni3Al stoichiometry and to the additional alloying elements Co and Cr. The gamma'-gamma order-disorder transformation is shown to be attended by a decrease in microhardness of about 30 %.
Specimens of single crystal superalloy SC16 were creep deformed at 1223 K along [0 0 1] up to ±0.5% creep strain using stresses of -150 MPa and +150 MPa, respectively. Line widths and peak positions of superlattice reflections were measured by means of X-ray diffraction parallel and perpendicular to the load axis in the temperature range between 293 K and 1173 K. The line widths were found to decrease with the increase of temperature for both directions on the two specimens after tensile and compressive creep deformation. After both kinds of creep deformation the crystal lattice showed tetragonal distortion which decreased with increasing temperature. The tetragonality after tensile creep deformation was larger than unity while it was smaller than unity after compressive creep deformation. The peak positions and widths restored after cooling back to room temperature. The experimental results can qualitatively be explained by the creation of dislocations during deformation and their anisotropic arrangement at the γ/γ' interfaces.
High-resolution diffraction using synchrotron x-ray radiation was applied to study γ´ precipitates with an L12 superlattice crystal structure in the single crystal superalloy SC16 after creep deformation at 1223 K with a creep strain of ±0.5% for tensile and compressive loads, respectively. The measurements of full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 001 and 100 γ´ superlattice reflections were performed at various temperatures from ambient temperature to 1173 K in vacuum. The experimental results revealed that the FWHM of both reflections decrease with increasing temperature. It is well-known that changes in particle size and lattice distortion in materials could lead to a variation of FWHM. The observed behaviour is discussed in the light of both the above-mentioned aspects. The decrease in the peak width is mainly attributed to the temperature dependence of the internal strain state.
A major international inter-comparison exercise on strain-controlled thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) has been undertaken to validate a new European Code of Practice for TMF Testing and to provide underpinning information for an ISO Standard. This paper focuses on (a) distribution of samples of Nimonic 90, (b) the establishment of a protocol for testing and reporting results, and (c) the analysis of the results. Participants in the inter-comparison exercise comprised eight inner-circle partners who primarily used test pieces which were all manufactured at the same workshop, albeit of three different test piece geometries, and ten outer-circle participants who manufactured their own test pieces, of their own in-house geometry. Each participant undertook three repeat in-phase (IP) tests and three repeat out-of-phase (OP) tests. The tests were conducted at temperatures cycling between 400 °C and 850 °C, with a strain range selected to give a failure life of approximately 1000 cycles, resulting in a stress range of up to ~1000 MPa. The testing conditions were chosen following a preliminary evaluation of critical testing parameters. Results from solid circular and solid flat test piece geometries, together with hollow tubular test pieces have been compared. The influence of temperature measurement using different types of temperature sensors has also been investigated. In-house repeatability has been assessed, together with inter-laboratory reproducibility. The results have been correlated with modulus and thermal expansion data for individual tests. Initially, the largest contribution to scatter in the results was attributed to human errors in reporting the results, compounded by computer assisted cut-and-paste errors. Once these obvious discrepancies had been corrected, it was possible to use the data sets to point to some recommendations regarding testing procedures that can be incorporated into the Code of Testing Practice [Hähner P et al. Code of practice for thermo-mechanical fatigue testing TMF-Standard-Work Package 6 Report, September 2005] and provide technical underpinning for the ISO Standard. The results and the procedures used for analysis are presented.
Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) testing plays an increasingly important role in the design, the reliability assessment and the lifecycle management of safety critical components used, for instance, for power generation, in the process industry and in aeronautical and automotive applications, with a view to increasing the fuel efficiency, safety and service intervals, while reducing production (and material) costs. In a European Commission funded research project (acronym: TMF-Standard) of the 5th Framework Programme, 20 European laboratories have undertaken a joint research effort to establish a validated code-of-practice (CoP) for strain-controlled TMF testing. Starting from a survey of the testing protocols and procedures previously used by the partners, a comprehensive pre-normative research activity into various issues has been completed, addressing the dynamic temperature control, the effects of deviations in nominal temperatures and phase angles, the influences of temperature gradients, as well as the practicalities of test interruption and restart procedures. Meaningful allowable tolerances for the various test parameters were identified and practical recommendations as to the test techniques were formulated. From this a preliminary CoP was compiled and used to guide an extensive round robin exercise among the project partners. From the statistical analysis of that exercise, a validated CoP was derived dealing with strain-controlled constant amplitude TMF of nominally homogeneous metallic materials subjected to spatially uniform temperature fields and uniaxial mechanical loading. It is intended to give advice and guidance on the appropriate test setup, testing procedures and the analysis of results, in particular for newcomers in the field of strain-controlled TMF. This paper highlights some of the results of the TMF-Standard project. Moreover, commonalities and differences of the present CoP with respect to the standard documents for strain-controlled TMF, which have been developed at ISO and ASTM levels, are presented in this paper.
Time dependence of y/y' Lattice Mismatch in Creep-deformed Single Crystal Superalloy SC16 at 1173 K
(2007)
Für viskoplastische Stoffgesetze wird das prinzipielle Verfahren der Identifikation von Materialmodell-Parametern für das Spannungs-Verformungs- und Versagens-Verhalten metallischer Werkstoffe am Beispiel von Hochtemperatur-Ermüdung aufgezeigt. Dies betrifft zum Einen die Verwendung geeigneter und auch möglichst weniger Experimente zur Hervorbringung der zu beschreibenden Phänomene des Werkstoffverhaltens und deren gezielte Auswertung sowie zum Anderen die physikalisch kontrollierte Führung einer numerischen Optimierung zur Ermittlung vertrauenswürdiger Materialparameterwerte. Diese Vorgehensweise wurde erfolgreich auf Warmarbeitsstähle sowie poly- und einkristalline Superlegierungen angewendet.
SC16 at 950 °C under LCF loading on smooth cylindrical specimen: influence of secondary orientation
(2008)
The uniaxial, torsional and axial-torsional thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) behavior of the near-γ TiAl-alloy TNB-V5 was investigated. TMF tests were performed at 400-800 °C with mechanical strain amplitudes ranging from 0.15% to 0.7%. The tests were conducted thermomechanically in-phase (IP) and out-of-phase (OP).
For the same lifetimes, uniaxial IP tests required the highest strain amplitudes, while OP test conditions were most damaging and needed the lowest strain amplitudes. The Mises equivalent mechanical strain amplitudes of pure torsional tests were found in between uniaxial in-phase and out-of-phase tests for the same lifetimes. The non-proportional multiaxial out-of-phase test showed a lower lifetime at the same equivalent mechanical strain amplitude compared to the other types of tests.
The microstructure has been characterized applying electron microscopy and microstructural parameters such as fraction of twinned grains, grain size, lamellar distance and dislocation density have been quantified.
A material family to replace the current superalloys in aeronautical gas turbine engines is
considered to be that of gamma Titanium Aluminide (γ-TiAl) alloys. Structural components in
aeronautical gas turbine engines typically experience large variations in temperatures and multiaxial
states of stress under non-isothermal conditions. The uniaxial, torsional and bi-axial thermomechanical
fatigue (TMF) behaviour of this γ-TiAl alloy have been examined at 400 800°C with
strain amplitudes from 0.15% to 0.7%. The tests were conducted at both in-phase (IP) and out-ofphase
(OP). The effects of TMF on the microstructure were also investigated. For the same
equivalent mechanical strain amplitude uniaxial IP tests showed significantly longer lifetimes than
pure torsional TMF tests. The non-proportional multiaxial OP test showed the lowest lifetimes at
the same equivalent mechanical strain amplitude compared to the other types of tests.
Mechanical properties of superheater materials after ageing and corrosion in CO2 rich flue gases
(2010)
Es wird der DIN-Arbeitsausschuss Ermüdungsprüfung und seine Aufgaben vorgestellt. Ferner wird über die Thematik der thermischen Drift von Extensometern und die daraus resultierenden Fehler berichtet. Darüber hinaus werden aktuelle Aspekte der dynamischen Temperaturmessung im thermo-mechanischen Ermüdungsversuch vorgestellt.
Investigations on the tensile testing procedure conducted within the European project TENSTAND
(2015)
The current presentation shows the intention of the former European TENSTAND project on computer controlled tensile testing of metals. The history of the tensile testing standards is explained. Some test results of the TENSTAND project are shown. The presentation is focused on criticism of Chinese delegates in ISO TC 164 SC1 WG4 who stated that the TENSTAND project which was finished about 10 years ago came to wrong conclusions and were misleading. This presentation points out misunderstandings of the Chinese delegation in the test program and the results of the TENSTAND project and the former development of the tensile testing standard ISO 6892-1. Some tests of the TENSTAND project were newly evaluated using the original test data. The evaluation showed again that the conclusions of the TENSTAND project are correct.
Bei den Normen ISO 15363 und EN 10275 handelt es sich um den hydraulischen Ringaufweitungsversuch, der in der Rohrprüfung in der Industrie genutzt wird. Auf Vorschlag von Salzgitter Mannesmann Forschung wurde im Arbeitsausschuss NA 062-01-53AA – Rohrprüfung - der Vorschlag eingebracht, beide Normen zu harmonisieren. Beide Normen sind fast identisch. Lediglich die verwendeten Symbole sind unterschiedlich. Daher soll in der ISO 15363 ein weiterer Anhang eingeführt werden, der eine Tabelle enthält, in der die Symbole der ISO 15363 und der EN 10275 gegenübergestellt werden. Die in der EN 10275 verwendeten Symbole entsprechen denen, die in Produktnormen für Stahlrohre verwendet werden. Der Normenharmonisierungsvorschlag, der unter dem Wiener Abkommen umgesetzt werden soll, wurde 2016 auf die Sitzung ISO TC 164 SC2 erfolgreich von deutscher Seite eingebracht.
Extensometer für Hochtemperatur-Ermüdungsversuche sind vielfach aus Aluminium gebaut, an dem Glas- oder Keramikstangen befestigt sind, die in den heißen Bereich des Versuches hineinragen. In einer physikalischen Betrachtung wird die Wärmeausdehnung von Aluminium berechnet und der relative Fehler aus der thermischen Drift ermittelt. Der Fehler ist stark von der thermischen Fluktuation abhängig. Ferner steigt der Fehler besonders bei kleinen Dehnungen stark an. Es wird deutlich, dass bei kleinen Dehnungen die erlaubte Temperaturschwankung im Bereich von 0,5 – 1K betragen darf, um den nach Norm (z.B. ISO 12106) erlaubten Fehler von maximal 1 % nicht zu überschreiten.
In dehnungsgeregelten Ermüdungsversuchen äußert sich die Temperaturschwankung am Extensometer in Kraftschwankungen an der geprüften Probe. Daher bewirkt eine Konstanthaltung der Temperatur eine Verbesserung der Versuchsergebnisse. In der Praxis sind jedoch Temperaturmessungen am Extensometer nicht üblich. Von daher kann der thermisch bedingte Fehler aufgrund von Temperaturschwankungen am Extensometer gar nicht ausgewertet werden. Für eine Verbesserung der Qualität von Versuchsergebnissen wird generell eine Messung der Temperatur am Extensometer vorgeschlagen.
Es ist eine seit ca. 10 Jahren bestehende Politik des ISO Gremiums TC 164, für Normen von mechanischen Prüfverfahren einen Anhang zu entwickeln, der Angaben zur Berechnung der Messunsicherheit enthält. Bis auf wenige Ausnahmen enthalten heute ISO-Normen überwiegend informative Anhänge, die nur allgemeine Informationen zur Berechnung der Messunsicherheit enthalten. In dem Vortrag sollen die Nachteile einer solchen Vorgehensweise dargestellt werden. Es wird ein Vorschlag zur Verbesserung unterbreitet. Anhand von zwei einfachen Beispielen wird veranschaulicht, dass solche informativen Anhänge Messunsicherheiten erzeugen, die bei Erstellung durch unterschiedliche Prüflaboratorien nicht miteinander vergleichbar sind. Das ist nicht befriedigend. Von daher wird vorgeschlagen, einen normativen Anhang zu erstellen, der die Auftraggeber und Antragnehmer verpflichtet, eine Methode zur Berechnung der Messunsicherheit vertraglich auszuhandeln. Ferner wird in dem normativen Anhang darauf hingewiesen, dass beim Vergleich von Messunsicherheiten die Berechnungsgrundlage identisch sein muss. Ferner wird vorgeschlagen, einen informativen Anhang mit einem Beispiel zur Berechnung der Messunsicherheit einzuführen, um Auftraggebern und Auftragnehmern eine entsprechende Möglichkeit zur Berechnung an die Hand zu geben. Diese Methode ist ein pragmatischer Einstieg in die Entwicklung von Anhängen für ISO Normen, in denen die Messunsicherheit berechnet wird. Der Vorschlag enthält Mindestanforderungen. Eine Weiterentwicklung wird in der Zukunft angestrebt.
In dem Vortrag werden aktuelle Entwicklungen zum thermo-mechanischen Ermüdungsversuch aufgezeigt. In der Vergangenheit wurden ausschließlich dehnungsgeregelte TMF-Versuche durchgeführt. Zukünftig werden auch spannungsgeregelte TMF-Versuche eine Rolle spielen, besonders bei kleinen Belastungen und hohen Schwingspielzahlen. Daneben werden Rissfortschrittsmessungen bei TMF-Beanspruchung eine zunehmende Bedeutung zugemessen. Die Versuchstechnik hierzu ist noch nicht sehr verbreitet verfügbar und ist sehr anspruchsvoll. Es wird das Europäische Forschungsprojekt TEACH vorgestellt, welches beantragt, aber noch nicht bewilligt ist. Ferner wird der 3rd TMF-Workshop 2016 angekündigt, der bei der BAM in Berlin stattfinden wird.
Components in the Aerospace, Power and Automotive engineering sectors are frequently subjected to cyclic stresses induced by thermal fluctuations and mechanical loads. For the design of such components, reliable material property data are required which need to be acquired using well accepted and reproducible test procedures for thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) loading. Available materials TMF property data are limited so that there is a need for further TMF data generated by TMF testing. The TMF behaviour of materials is often desired to be simulated in models which describe the cyclic stress-strain behaviour, the fatigue life and the cyclic crack growth behaviour. There is a continuous need for the development and amendment of such models. Models can be validated by using materials in industrial applications which are subjected to TMF loading.
DIN 50100 definiert die Bedingungen für den Schwingfestigkeitsversuch, der zur Ermittlung von Kennwerten dient, die das Verhalten metallischer Werkstoffe und Bauteile bei zyklischer Beanspruchung mit einer konstanten Lastamplitude beschreiben (Wöhlerversuch). Die Norm umfasst die Versuchsdurchführung, die Versuchsauswertung sowie die Dokumentation von lastgeregelten Wöhlerversuchen im Zeit- und Langzeitfestigkeitsbereich. Mit DIN 50100 soll erreicht werden, dass die Wöhlerlinien verschiedener Prüfstellen miteinander vergleichbar und die wesentlichen Randbedingungen der Versuchsdurchführung dokumentiert werden. Da die Ergebnisse von Schwingfestigkeitsversuchen streuen, ist die Treffsicherheit für die Schätzung der Kennwerte von der Anzahl der Versuche einer Versuchsreihe abhängig. In Abhängigkeit von einer geforderten Treffsicherheit wird durch die DIN 50100 der erforderliche Stichprobenumfang vorgegeben.