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Risssicherheit von Schweißnähten an Pipelines der Offshore-Industrie aus supermartensitischem Stahl
(2005)
Nickel base alloys are frequently applied in safety-relevant fields such as chemical plant construction or power plant engineering. Particularly on account of their cubic face-centered solidification characteristic, these materials are frequently susceptible to metallurgy-specific hot cracking during fusion welding. A classification of these materials according to their hot cracking resistance in the MVT-Test (Modified Varestraint Transvarestraint Test) is carried out by the example of a series of base and welding filler materials. Moreover, it has been proven by the MVT Test that the hot cracking resistance of nickel base alloy (Alloy 602 CA) can be improved by selecting appropriate shielding gases.
To the revision of ISO 3690 regarding the acceptance of the carrier gas hot extraction method
(2004)
Improving HAZ Toughness of High Heat Input Welded Joints by Using Boron Diffusion from Weld Metal
(2004)
Up to the present, the thermomechanical loads during welding and subsequent cooling under design-specific shrinkage restraint resulting from the interaction between the materials and the structure have often not been taken into consideration approperiately for weldability assessment of components. As compared to previous investigations using small specimens this report presents component weld tests under varying intensities of restraint. Online records of the reaction forces and moments demonstrate in which way the intensity of restraint affects the reaction stresses and moments and their meaning for the evaluation of the load level in welded components.
Düring the past decades, weldability studies have predominantly been concentrated on the material and the welding process. In order to achieve a closer insight into the structural effects, component weldability tests have been performed by online monitoring of the reaction forces and moments. As a particular item, the effects of different strengths of the base and filier material on the reaction force and stress build up transverse to the welding direction have been studied at a specific structural restraint. As a most relevant result for practical welding it is demonstrated that the final reaction force and also the reaction stress level in the multilayer butt welds decreases with overmatch of the weld metal.
Analyse lokaler Verformungsfelder mittels DIC-Technik während der Heißrissbildung beim Schweißen
(2013)
Für die Gewährleistung der Bauteilsicherheit ist während des Fertigungsprozesses das Vermeiden von Imperfektionen maßgeblich. Zu diesen Imperfektionen zählen auch beim Schweißen auftretende Heißrisse, die insbesondere die Bauteileigenschaft beeinflussen und demzufolge ausgeschlossen werden müssen. Aufgrund der hohen Komplexität, hervorgerufen durch das Zusammenwirken zahlreicher Einflussgrößen, existieren überwiegend vereinfachte Werkstoffmodelle, die das Heißrissphänomen nur unzureichend beschreiben. Da bislang eine Charakterisierung dieser Heißrissentstehung überwiegend auf spannungs- und dehnungsbasierten Modellen erfolgt, wurde in diesem Fall speziell geprüft, in wie weit vereinfachend eine Quantifizierung des Heißrissverhaltens anhand von Verschiebungen bzw. Verschiebungsraten möglich ist. Die Tatsache, dass Heißrisse in Werkstoffen auftreten, die aus metallurgischer Sicht als heißrissunkritisch eingestuft werden können, zeigt, dass weitere Faktoren, wie der konstruktive Einfluss, betrachtet werden müssen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde dieser Aspekt unter Nutzung des Controlled-Tensile- Weldability(CTW)-Tests untersucht. Hierfür wurde die Digital-Image-Correlation( DIC)-Technik erfolgreich zur In-situ-Analyse der lokalen Querverschiebungen dy und Querverschiebungsraten dy/dt in direkter Schmelzbadnähe während des Schweißens eingesetzt.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In order to guarantee the component safety, it is essential to avoid imperfections during the production process. These imperfections also include hot cracks which arise during welding, exert an influence on the component property in particular and must consequently be excluded. Due to the high complexity caused by the interaction of a large number of influencing variables, there are mostly simplified material models which describe the hot cracking phenomenon only insufficiently. Since this hot crack initiation has, until now, been characterised mostly on models based on stresses and strains, it was especially checked in this case the extent to which the hot cracking behaviour can be quantified using a simplifying method taking account of displacements and displacement rates. The fact that hot cracks occur in materials that, from the metallurgical point of view, cannot be classified as hot-crack-critical shows that further factors such as the influence of design need to be considered. This aspect was investigated in the present study by using the Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) test. For this, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique was successfully applied for the in situ analysis of the local transverse displacements dy and transverse displacement rates dy/dt in the direct weld pool vicinity during welding.
Revealing hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms in steels is of great interest to scientists and engineers. Neutron radiography makes it possible to measure in-situ hydrogen diffusion with high spatial and temporal resolution at concentrations as low as 20 ppm. We compare hydrogen-charged specimens with hydrogen-free reference specimens and use calibration standards to normalize the hydrogen concentrations. This allows quantitative tracking of the hydrogen concentration evolution as a function of time, space and temperature. Furthermore, a view into the material with 'neutron eyes' facilitates the detection of cavities that contain molecular hydrogen.
Hydrogen generally causes lattice distortions and phase transformations when introduced into a metallic crystal lattice. For the investigations reported in this contribution, hydrogen thermal desorption analysis has been carried out to observe the influence of hydrogen desorption on the lattice of super martensitic stainless steel during continuous heating. The lattice expansion parameter and the phase transformations have been monitored during the thermal desorption process, and the influence of hydrogen on such characteristics has been evaluated. It was found that hydrogen has a significant influence on both the lattice parameter and on the thermal expansion. However, hydrogen has no influence on phase transformation during thermal desorption. The hydrogen's desorption behavior in this process was also observed and it turned out that hydrogen desorbs in two stages, i.e., firstly diffusible hydrogen and trapped hydrogen afterward.
Quantification of hydrogen diffusion Coefficients and Effusion Behaviour in Duplex Steel Weld Metals
(2012)
A 20 mm thick heat resistant 13CrMoV9-10 steel was welded using a multi-pass submerged arc tandem setup on a 3-D testing facility designed to prevent shrinkage both during the welding and the subsequent cooling to room temperature. The effects of variations in pre-heating and interpass temperatures on the local stresses were monitored by in situ measurement of reaction forces and bending moments during welding and the subsequent dehydrogenation heat treatment. The austenite to bainite transformation and its effects on the overall loads were monitored through the use of a high sampling rate. Increasing the pre-heating and interpass temperatures led to a rise in reaction forces and bending moments. The bending moments originated from the eccentric force transmission over the backing, with a concomitant risk of fracture, especially in the critical root zone. Although the pre-heating and interpass temperatures had a strong effect on the reaction forces, their effect on the bending moments upon cooling to room temperature was negligible.
The purpose of the present study is to show the feasibility of examining hydrogen desorption in technical iron samples using neutron radiography at the ANTARES facility of the FRM II research reactor, Technische Universität München. It has been shown that this method is appropriate for in situ determination of hydrogen Desorption for concentrations as low as 20 ppmH. Experiments were carried out in the temperature range from room temperature up to 260 °C. Measurement was based on direct comparison between electrochemically hydrogen-loaded iron samples and hydrogen-free reference samples at the same temperature.
This enables the determination of hydrogen concentration as a function of time and temperature. Ex situ carrier gas hot extraction experiments using the same temperature–time profiles as the neutron radiography experiments have been used to calibrate the greyscale values of the radiographs to defined hydrogen concentrations. It can be stated that hydrogen desorption correlates with sample temperature.
Solid-state phase transformations and the evolution of thermal and elastic strains in novel low temperature transformation (LTT) weld filler materials in the near surface region are monitored in real time by means of an innovative experimental set-up at the PDIFF (powder diffraction) beamline at the synchrotron light source ANKA (Angströmquelle Karlsruhe) at the KIT (Karlsruhe Institute for Technology). The key components of the diffraction set-up are two fast microstrip line detectors, which enables the strain evolution to be followed as a function of time and temperature for a 0.5?s counting time. During controlled heating and cooling cycles, as well as during near welding cycles, the martensite–austenite–martensite phase transitions are analysed. The transformation kinetics are monitored during resistance heating of small chips of the pure LTT alloys and during gas tungsten arc welding of simplified LTT welds using a specially designed welding rig for in-situ studies on the diffraction instruments. Under the mechanically unconstrained condition allowing free thermal expansion and shrinkage, the LTT alloys are found to exhibit decreasing transformation temperatures Ac and MS and increasing phase fraction of retained austenite for increasing Ni content. The strain evolution during welding reveals increased compressive stresses upon welding, which is attributed to the martensite formation upon cooling, which counteracts the thermal contraction strains. Comparison of the transformation temperatures reveals higher values than in the pure LTT alloys, but no variation between the different alloys. On the one hand, this is attributed to preferred grain orientation affecting the diffraction measurements and the determination of the transformation temperatures. On the other hand, it is possible that with the different chemical compositions of the LTT alloys and the mechanical constraints during welding, the evolution of the residual strain and stress may vary and result in counteracting affects with respect to lowered martensite start temperatures.
In-situ analysis of solid state phase transformation in TRIP-aided steels by synchrotron diffraction
(2011)
Energy dispersive synchrotron diffraction (EDXRD) analysis and 3 dimensional digital image correlations were conducted to investigate the stress and strain effected transformation behavior during tensile loading of low alloyed TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel. This technique allowed for phase specific stress measurement during certain tensile load steps in the elastic and also plastic regime. Additionally the simultaneous determination of the load dependent phase content was realized. The results show that the martensite transformation starts only after exceeding the overall yield point and is finished before reaching the uniform elongation, whereas a large portion of the austenite remains unchanged in the structure. Furthermore, the martensite transformation related to the stress in the γ-phase and α-phase was analyzed and quantified.
Energy-dispersive x-ray diffraction offers the possibility for measurement and evaluation of diffraction spectra containing information of various diffraction lines of all contributing crystalline phases of a material. Combined strain imaging and diffraction analysis was conducted during the tensile test of a low alloyed transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel in order to investigate the transformation induced plasticity, strain hardening, and load partitioning effects. Optical strain imaging allowed for determination of localized true strains from three-dimensional deformations measured in situ. High-energy synchrotron radiation has permitted diffraction analysis in transmission mode to gather information from the material interior. Phase-specific stress evolution during loading could be observed applying the sin2ψ technique during certain load steps. The strains of the individual lattice planes were determined in different locations under varying angles between loading and perpendicular direction. Using energy-dispersive methods it was also possible to determine the transformation behaviour during elastic and plastic regime taking into account a large number of diffraction lines. The results show that the approach practised here enables one to pull together macroscopic and phase-specific microscopic material behaviour in order to improve existing models for prediction of complex load situations.
We discuss the stability of weld residual strain under static and quasi cyclic transverse tensile loading in the elastic and elastic–plastic region. The test welds were joined with low transformation temperature weld filler materials with 10 wt% Cr and varying Ni-content from 8 to 12 wt%. Using neutron diffraction the residual lattice strain in the martensitic α'- and austenitic γ-phase in the fusion zone as well as the ferritic α-phase in the heat affected zone and base metal as induced by welding, superimposed by stepwise tensile loading and after unloading was measured. The amount of retained austenite in the fusion zone increases with increasing Ni-content, but it decreases with increasing load level due to stress induced martensite formation. In the as-welded condition the transverse macroscopic residual lattice strain was found to be in low compression in the fusion zone in each weld, while the heat affected zone was in tension. Local plastic deformation of the γ-phase as a result of yielding during tensile loading in combination with the change in phase fraction resulted in increased macroscopic compression in the fusion zone. The reduced yield strength in the heat affected zone resulted in plastic deformation and a considerable shift into compression. Comparison with the cross weld distribution of the hardness and FWHM of the neutron diffraction interference lines supported the assumption of plastic deformation of the γ- and α-phase in the fusion and heat affected zone, respectively, while the α'-phase in the fusion zone was stressed within the elastic regime only. Microstructural observations as well as measurement of the local γ-phase fraction by means of laboratory X-ray diffraction in the fusion zone strengthen these observations.
This study provides an in-depth survey of current technologies and applications for assessing the cold cracking susceptibility of welded joints. From the large variety of existent cold cracking test procedures, the most important and internationally established tests are presented and evaluated in terms of their usefulness and application limits. According to the type of loading, the test procedures are classified into self-restraint and externally loaded tests. Apart from the merely metallurgical weldability tests for determining the cracking susceptibility of base materials, filler materials and weld metals, advanced test methods are presented for evaluating the cold cracking susceptibility of welded components. A salient point brought out in this respect is the fact that the level of external loading in such component weld tests can be applied independently of the welding parameters, reproducing as realistically as possible the practical application case, i.e. the level of the restraint intensity. This study includes a summarized comparison of the cold cracking procedures. It is emphasized that highly accurate consideration and reproduction of the design-specific stiffness conditions is essential in the tests for assessing the cold cracking behaviour of welded joints. Therefore, various numerical analyses are presented in a final chapter for calculating the restraint intensity as a definitive factor affecting cold cracking.
In der Beurteilung der Schweißbarkeit für die Sicherheit und Zuverlässigkeit von Bauteilen fanden bisher die aus der Interaktion zwischen den Werkstoffen und der Konstruktion resultierenden thermomechanischen Belastungen während des Schweißens und der nachfolgenden Abkühlung unter konstruktiv bedingter Schrumpfbehinderung häufig nur wenig Beachtung. Gegenüber bisherigen Untersuchungen an Kleinproben wurden daher im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bauteilrelevante Schweißverbindungen unter realistischen Spannungsverteilungen geprüft. Diese Bauteilschweißversuche wurden in einer speziellen Großprüfanlage unter Variation der Schrumpfbehinderung, des Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffes sowie der Streckenenergie durchgeführt. Dabei erweist sich das Konzept des Einspanngrades als geeignet, um die reale konstruktionsbedingte Schrumpfbehinderung auf die Versuchsanlage zu transferieren. Mittels online-Aufzeichnungen der Reaktionskräfte und -momente konnte gezeigt werden, wie sich diese Einzeleinflussgrößen jeweils auf die Höhe und den Verlauf der Reaktionskräfte und -momente auswirken und welche Bedeutung sie für die Einschätzung des Belastungsniveaus in Form von Spannungen und Dehnungen in Bauteilen besitzen. Unter anderem stellte sich heraus, dass unter relativ geringen Einspanngraden eine unkritische Eigenbelastung des Bauteiles vorliegt, jedoch bei hoher Steifigkeit die thermomechanische Beanspruchung bis zum Riss führen kann. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmalig die Wirkung der Festigkeit von Zusatzwerkstoffen auf die Spanungs-Dehnungsverteilung unter definierter Schrumpfbehinderung am Bauteil untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass unabhängig vom Grundwerkstoff ein hochfester Schweißzusatz zu geringeren Reaktionskräften führt als beim Schweißen mit einem Schweißzusatz mit vergleichsweise niedrigerer Festigkeit. Weiterhin wurde der Dehnungsverlauf beim und nach dem Schweißen unter definierter Schrumpfbehinderung mittels Dehnungsmessstreifen und einem Wegmesssystem bestimmt. Abhängig vom Schweißnahtabstand und dem Einspanngrad traten charakteristische Verformungsverläufe auf. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse konnte eine bisher ungebräuchliche jedoch notwendige Aufteilung der Schweißung in Nah- und Fernfeld erfolgen. Mit der inkrementellen Bohrlochmethode wurden die Eigenspannungen im Nahtbereich unter Einspannung, nach dem Entlasten und nach dem Wiederbelasten auf das Niveau der ursprünglich wirkenden Reaktionskräfte der Proben ermittelt und mit röntgenografischen Werten verglichen. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Einspanngrad und den Nahteigenspannungen lässt sich durch einen einfachen funktonalen Ansatz beschreiben. Den Untersuchungen wurde aufgrund der auf diesem Gebiet vorliegenden sehr unzusammenhängenden Literatur ein detaillierter Kenntnisstand vorangestellt.
All melting range alloys are subject to the risk of material-, design- and welding process-specific hot cracking during liquid to solid phase transition. The present study was focused specifically on the influence of additional external loads, e.g. resulting from component welding fabrication, on weld pool near displacements and on the associated structural hot cracking behaviour. Respective experimental investigations were conducted using the controlled tensile weldability test enabling defined additional tensile load imposition during welding. Depending on external loading, the local weld pool near transverse displacements dy and transverse displacement rates dy/dt were determined in situ during welding with the help of the digital image correlation technique. The measurements allowed time and spatially resolved identification of hot crack critical transverse displacements and displacement rates.
The object of this research project related to investigations into the qualification of flux-cored wire electrodes for the laser-GMA hybrid welding of high-alloyed steels. Because of its annular metal shell and the powdery filling, this type of wire electrode permits stable, low-spatter metal transfer comparable with that in the spray arc, particularly in the upper range of the attainable deposition rates. In contrast with this, controlled metal transfer during the deposition of solid wire electrodes is achieved using pulsed arc technology. When these filler materials are welded, the properties specific to the material and to the process have a significant influence on the weld metallurgy as well as on the process stability. Tests were carried out on the AISI 403L (X2CrNi1911) high-alloyed base material in order to investigate the transferability of the attainable material properties from GMA welding to laser-GMA hybrid welding. Four wire electrodes were used according to DIN EN 12072 and DIN EN ISO 17633: a T 19 9 L P M 1 rutile fluxcored wire designed specifically for welding in position, a T 19 9 L R M (C) 3 rutile flux-cored wire suitable for welding in the flat position, a T 19 9 L M M 1 metal-powder flux-cored wire as well as a G 19 9 L Si solid wire.
In Chap. 1 of this book, the term Technical Diagnostics has been introduced as the examination of symptoms and syndromes to determine the nature of faults or failures of technical objects. Their characteristics in different technological areas may be of very different nature. One of them is the reaction of technical objects to deform under loads. Those loads may be induced by external forces or thermal fields resulting in mechanical or thermal stresses, respectively. Another reason of deformation is the permanent presence of internal material forces mainly caused by material processing technologies at elevated temperatures such as welding, forging, rolling, or casting and referred to as residual stresses.
Aspects of positional laser-GMA-hybrid welding using high alloyed tubular cored wire electrodes
(2008)
Anwendung des neuen Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) Tests zur Untersuchung der Heißrissneigung
(2006)
Effects of Preheating and Interpass Temperature on Stresses in S 1100 QL Multi-Pass Butt-Welds
(2008)
CT-01 Formation of welding residual stresses in low transformation temperature (LTT) materials
(2008)
Energy dispersive synchrotron diffraction for in-situ analyses of hydrogen behavior in steels
(2013)
The extent of hydrogen embrittlement phenomenon is dependent on the interaction of hydrogen with the material i.e. diffusion behavior, lattice distortions, phase transformations and residual stresses developments. For the better understanding of the hydrogen interaction with the metal, possibilities of performing in-situ observations of the mentioned factors has to be accomplished. The EDDI (Energy Dispersive Diffraction) beamline at the BESSY II facility in Berlin provides this possibility and was used in order to investigate the aspects of this phenomenon in in-situ scale.
The energy dispersive method entails a synchrotron X-ray white beam with a wide energy range (20–120 keV) which allows a fixed position of the sample and the detector, and combined with the high photons flux it allows a very short measurement time for obtaining a full scale X-Ray Diffraction patterns.
In this contribution, the successful usage of high energy X-rays, applied for the first time for hydrogen behavior observations, provided the ability for evaluating in-situ the hydrogen diffusion behavior and the hydrogen interaction with stresses fields in the material.
Steel samples were charged with hydrogen and examined by Synchrotron radiation.
Two different methods were used in this research; the first is diffusible hydrogen concentration evaluation extracted from the lattice distortions, i.e. changes of the lattice parameter. The second is calculation of the residual stresses present in the sample and the interaction of hydrogen with them, using the known sin2ψ method.
Crack and fatigue resistance are relevant evaluation criteria for welded joints and are decreased by tensile residual
stresses resulting from the welding and cooling process, while compressive residual stresses can have a positive
influence on the characteristics mentioned. In order to generate compressive residual stresses, a set of post weld
treatment procedures is available, like shot peening, hammering, etc. These procedures have the disadvantage that
they are time and cost extensive and have to be applied after welding. As another point, such technologies can only
produce compressive stresses at the top surface, i.e. can only contribute to the reduction of the risk of cracks initiated
at the surface, like fatigue cracks. A chance to generate compressive stresses over the complete weld joint during the
welding procedure is offered by the so-called Low Transformation Temperature (LTT -) filler wires. Compared to
conventional wires, these materials show lower phase transformation temperatures, which can work against coolingrelated
tensile stresses, resulting from respective shrinkage restraint. In consequence, distinct compressive residual
stresses can be observed within the weld and adjacent areas. The strength of these fillers makes them potentially
applicable to high-strength steel welding. Welds produced with different LTT filler wires have shown different levels
and distributions of the resulting residual stresses depending on the specific transformation temperature. The
transformation temperatures are determined by temperature measurement. Classical X-ray diffraction as well as
diffraction methods using high energy synchrotron radiation have been used for residual stress analysis. By means of
high energy synchrotron diffraction in reflection mode residual stress depth gradients can be determined nondestructively.
The phase selective nature of the diffraction measurements enables the simultaneous determination of
the phase specific residual stresses of all contributing crystalline phases within one experiment. The application of
white beam diffraction implies recording of a multitude of diffraction lines within the energy range of the provided
energy spectrum of the white beam. By this means phase specific residual stress depth distributions up to distances of
150 ìm below the surface can be analysed for steel using the energy dispersive set-up of the HMI-beamline EDDI at
the Bessy site, Berlin, providing an energy range between 20-150 keV. As a side effect quantitative phase analysis can
be carried out using white energy dispersive diffraction e.g. the determination of the content of retained austenite in the
weld.
Novel martensitic filler materials with specially adjusted martensite start temperatures (Ms) can counteract the cooling specific shrinkage due to expansion effects of the weld metal associated with phase transformations. That can be exploited to create compressive residual stresses in the weld and adjacent areas, i.e. beneficial for increasing fatigue strength. The Ms temperature is shifted via the chemical composition, mainly by the alloying elements nickel and chromium, resulting as well in different retained austenite contents. Investigations were made using different Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) alloys with varying nickel content. The resulting phase transformation temperatures were - for the first time - detected using high energy synchrotron diffraction and Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Compared to angle dispersive diffraction, energy dispersive diffraction offers the possibility to measure residual stresses of the martensite and austenite phase parallel fast in one experiment up to depths of 100 µm. The residual stresses show significant distributions dependent on Ms temperature. The effect on the cold cracking behaviour of these alloys was investigated using the Tekken test. Results show that cold cracking can be avoided when appropriate contents of retained austenite are existent.
This international round robin test served to scrutinize the procedures specified in ISO/DIS 3690:2009 for determining the diffusible hydrogen content in weld metals with bcc-lattice structure. It was specifically intended to check in what respect the specifications defined in the indicated standards for specimen preparation, storage and hydrogen analysis provide comparable measurement results. The round robin test is presented comprising comparative measurements at various degassing temperatures using hot extraction techniques and a thermal conductivity detector (TCD). A major focus of this investigation was the examination of the maximum degassing temperature for analysing the diffusible hydrogen in materials with bcc-lattice structure. The analyses were performed using two different stick electrodes and three different filler wires. As a significant result it was found that no deviations or increases, were detected in the measured contents of diffusible hydrogen for the investigated degassing temperatures ranging between 45 degrees C and 400 degrees C. Hydrogen analyses for contents below HD = 1.5 ml/100 g with the hot extraction techniques in conjunction with TCD applied in this study led to considerable relative standard deviations.
Eine Anzahl verschiedener Effekte ergibt sich aus der Anwesenheit von Wasserstoff während des Schweißens hochlegierter Stähle. Die Betriebsdauer von geschweißten Bauteilen ist außerdem stark von der Anwesenheit von Wasserstoff im Umgebungsmedium und der Anfälligkeit der verschiedenen Schweißnahtgefüge für eine Degradation ihrer Eigenschaften durch Wasserstoff abhängig. Als eine relative neue Werkstoffgeneration finden supermartensitische hoch legierte Stähle (Supermartensitic Stainless Steels - SMSS) zunehmend als Ersatz für teuere Legierungen insbesondere in der Öl- und Gasindustrie Verwendung. Als Konsequenz ihres martensitischen Gefüges sind diese Legierungen anfällig für eine wasserstoffunterstützte Rissbildung (Hydrogen Assisted Cracking - HAC). Der Widerstand von supermartensitischen Stählen gegen wasserstoffunterstützte Spannungsrisskorrosion (Hydrogen Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking - HASCC) unter Sauergasbedingungen wurde vor allem für industrielle Einsatzzwecke extensiv untersucht. Solche Studien vornehmlich an Grundwerkstoffen basieren überwiegend auf Standard-Prüfverfahren. Dem gegenüber würde das grundsätzliche Verhalten von Wasserstoff in den Gefügen geschweißter supermartensitischer Stähle wenig untersucht. Die zentralen Gründe für die diesem Beitrag zugrunde liegende Studie waren daher, die Effekte des Wasserstoffs auf das Gefüge von Wolfram Inert Gas (WIG)-Schweißungen supermartensitischer Stähle und die entsprechenden Wasserstoff-Trapping-Mechanismen zu untersuchen. Die Wirkungen des Wasserstoffs auf die verschiedenen WIG-geschweißten Gefüge wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie, Lichtmikroskopie und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie untersucht. Eine Anzahl von Verfahren wurde außerdem angewendet, um den absorbierten Wasserstoff quantitativ zu bestimmen. Die Wechselwirkung zwischen Wasserstoff mit den mikrostrukturellen Defekten und die Charakteristika der Wasserstoffdesorption wurden mittels Thermischer Desorptionsspektroskopie (TDS) und Trägergas-Heißextraktionen des Wasserstoffs (LECO Analyse) untersucht. Die Wirkung des Gefüges auf die Absorption und Desorption von Wasserstoff werden im Detail diskutiert.
Cold cracking resistance is a relevant evaluation criterion for welded joints and affected by residual stresses which result from the welding procedure. Compressive residual stresses can thereby have a positive influence on preventing cracking. A unique possibility of generating compressive residual stresses already during the welding procedure is offered by the socalled Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler wires. Compared to conventional wires, these materials show decreased phase transformation temperatures which can work against the cooling-specific contraction. In consequence, distinct compressive residual stresses can be observed within the weld and adjacent areas. The strength of these fillers makes them potentially applicable to high-strength steel welding. Investigations were carried out to determine the phase transformation behaviour of different LTT-filler materials. Transformation temperatures were identified using Single Sensor Differential Thermal Analysis (SS-DTA). Additionally Synchrotron radiation was used to measure the transformation kinetics of all involved crystalline phases during heating and cooling of a simulated weld thermal cycle.
Zugeigenspannungen, wie sie beim Schweißprozess durch inhomogene Temperaturverteilungen und Schrumpfungen hervorgerufen werden, können die Lebensdauer geschweißter Verbindungen signifikant herabsetzen. Eine neue und außerordentlich attraktive Methode, um Druckeigenspannungen bereits während des Schweißens gezielt einzustellen, gelingt mit sogenannten LTT (Low Transformation Temperature)-Legierungen. LTT-Legierungen weisen eine martensitische Phasenumwandlung bei relativ niedrigen Temperaturen auf, wobei die damit verbundene Volumenexpansion zu einer Reduktion der Schrumpfeigenspannungen bzw. Erzeugung von Druckeigenspannungen führt. Zum direkten Nachweis der Phasenumwandlungen und der damit verbundenen resultierenden Schweißeigenspannungen wurden erstmals In-situ-Schweißexperimente unter Nutzung hoch energetischer, polychromatischer Synchrotronstrahlung (Weißstrahl) realisiert, um die Umwandlungskinetik während eines realen Schweißprozesses und die daraus resultierenden Schweißeigenspannungen zu analysieren. Es wird gezeigt, dass mit LTT-Legierungen signifikante Druckeigenspannungen in der Schweißnaht erreicht werden.
In this study, hydrogen absorption and storage was investigated for various high-alloyed ferritic-austenitic duplex stainless steels. On account of the specific transformation and solidification behaviour, respectively, of duplex stainless steels as compared to single-phase ferritic and austenitic steels, special conditions have to be considered concerning hydrogen absorption which may ultimately lead to microstructure-dependent hydrogen-assisted weld metal cracking. Hydrogen absorption during welding may occur via the shielding gas, moisture from the surroundings or via the welding filler material. As a contribution to the interpretation and prediction of hydrogen-induced cracking in welded duplex stainless steels, the actual hydrogen absorption via the arc as well as the weld metal hydrogen diffusion was investigated in a duplex stainless steel DSS (1.4462) and in a lean-duplex stainless steel LDS (1.4162). Isothermal heat treatment using carrier gas hot extraction enabled quantification of the amounts of hydrogen trapped in the respective microstructures. The total hydrogen concentrations were found to be nearly identical. Trapped hydrogen was however observed to be dependent on the material and on the microstructure condition. The influence of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of the weld metal was characterized with the help of tensile tests. In addition, hydrogen embrittlement was detected in scanning electron microscopic analyses.
Laser-gas metal arc (GMA)-hybrid welding enables a high deposition rate and a stable welding process. Process stability was found to be profoundly dependent on the type of the applied filler wire (solid or tubular cored). Whereas solid wires are deposited in pulsed arc mode, tubular cored wire electrodes are weldable by a stable spray-arc process within a wide operating range. This fact applies above all to a high alloyed metal cored wire electrode, of which the achievable deposition rates exceed the upper limits recommended by the manufacturer. A further interesting aspect is the application of a rutile tubular cored wire for positional laser-GMA-hybrid welding. A modern 20 kW-fibre laser source was available for the experiments. This study is concerned with the weldability of high alloyed tubular cored electrodes for high power laser-GMA-hybrid welding. Results obtained from comparative investigations between tubular cored and solid wire electrodes relating to process stability are summarised.