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Risssicherheit von Schweißnähten an Pipelines der Offshore-Industrie aus supermartensitischem Stahl
(2005)
Nickel base alloys are frequently applied in safety-relevant fields such as chemical plant construction or power plant engineering. Particularly on account of their cubic face-centered solidification characteristic, these materials are frequently susceptible to metallurgy-specific hot cracking during fusion welding. A classification of these materials according to their hot cracking resistance in the MVT-Test (Modified Varestraint Transvarestraint Test) is carried out by the example of a series of base and welding filler materials. Moreover, it has been proven by the MVT Test that the hot cracking resistance of nickel base alloy (Alloy 602 CA) can be improved by selecting appropriate shielding gases.
To the revision of ISO 3690 regarding the acceptance of the carrier gas hot extraction method
(2004)
Improving HAZ Toughness of High Heat Input Welded Joints by Using Boron Diffusion from Weld Metal
(2004)
Up to the present, the thermomechanical loads during welding and subsequent cooling under design-specific shrinkage restraint resulting from the interaction between the materials and the structure have often not been taken into consideration approperiately for weldability assessment of components. As compared to previous investigations using small specimens this report presents component weld tests under varying intensities of restraint. Online records of the reaction forces and moments demonstrate in which way the intensity of restraint affects the reaction stresses and moments and their meaning for the evaluation of the load level in welded components.
Düring the past decades, weldability studies have predominantly been concentrated on the material and the welding process. In order to achieve a closer insight into the structural effects, component weldability tests have been performed by online monitoring of the reaction forces and moments. As a particular item, the effects of different strengths of the base and filier material on the reaction force and stress build up transverse to the welding direction have been studied at a specific structural restraint. As a most relevant result for practical welding it is demonstrated that the final reaction force and also the reaction stress level in the multilayer butt welds decreases with overmatch of the weld metal.
Analyse lokaler Verformungsfelder mittels DIC-Technik während der Heißrissbildung beim Schweißen
(2013)
Für die Gewährleistung der Bauteilsicherheit ist während des Fertigungsprozesses das Vermeiden von Imperfektionen maßgeblich. Zu diesen Imperfektionen zählen auch beim Schweißen auftretende Heißrisse, die insbesondere die Bauteileigenschaft beeinflussen und demzufolge ausgeschlossen werden müssen. Aufgrund der hohen Komplexität, hervorgerufen durch das Zusammenwirken zahlreicher Einflussgrößen, existieren überwiegend vereinfachte Werkstoffmodelle, die das Heißrissphänomen nur unzureichend beschreiben. Da bislang eine Charakterisierung dieser Heißrissentstehung überwiegend auf spannungs- und dehnungsbasierten Modellen erfolgt, wurde in diesem Fall speziell geprüft, in wie weit vereinfachend eine Quantifizierung des Heißrissverhaltens anhand von Verschiebungen bzw. Verschiebungsraten möglich ist. Die Tatsache, dass Heißrisse in Werkstoffen auftreten, die aus metallurgischer Sicht als heißrissunkritisch eingestuft werden können, zeigt, dass weitere Faktoren, wie der konstruktive Einfluss, betrachtet werden müssen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde dieser Aspekt unter Nutzung des Controlled-Tensile- Weldability(CTW)-Tests untersucht. Hierfür wurde die Digital-Image-Correlation( DIC)-Technik erfolgreich zur In-situ-Analyse der lokalen Querverschiebungen dy und Querverschiebungsraten dy/dt in direkter Schmelzbadnähe während des Schweißens eingesetzt.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In order to guarantee the component safety, it is essential to avoid imperfections during the production process. These imperfections also include hot cracks which arise during welding, exert an influence on the component property in particular and must consequently be excluded. Due to the high complexity caused by the interaction of a large number of influencing variables, there are mostly simplified material models which describe the hot cracking phenomenon only insufficiently. Since this hot crack initiation has, until now, been characterised mostly on models based on stresses and strains, it was especially checked in this case the extent to which the hot cracking behaviour can be quantified using a simplifying method taking account of displacements and displacement rates. The fact that hot cracks occur in materials that, from the metallurgical point of view, cannot be classified as hot-crack-critical shows that further factors such as the influence of design need to be considered. This aspect was investigated in the present study by using the Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) test. For this, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique was successfully applied for the in situ analysis of the local transverse displacements dy and transverse displacement rates dy/dt in the direct weld pool vicinity during welding.
Revealing hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms in steels is of great interest to scientists and engineers. Neutron radiography makes it possible to measure in-situ hydrogen diffusion with high spatial and temporal resolution at concentrations as low as 20 ppm. We compare hydrogen-charged specimens with hydrogen-free reference specimens and use calibration standards to normalize the hydrogen concentrations. This allows quantitative tracking of the hydrogen concentration evolution as a function of time, space and temperature. Furthermore, a view into the material with 'neutron eyes' facilitates the detection of cavities that contain molecular hydrogen.
Hydrogen generally causes lattice distortions and phase transformations when introduced into a metallic crystal lattice. For the investigations reported in this contribution, hydrogen thermal desorption analysis has been carried out to observe the influence of hydrogen desorption on the lattice of super martensitic stainless steel during continuous heating. The lattice expansion parameter and the phase transformations have been monitored during the thermal desorption process, and the influence of hydrogen on such characteristics has been evaluated. It was found that hydrogen has a significant influence on both the lattice parameter and on the thermal expansion. However, hydrogen has no influence on phase transformation during thermal desorption. The hydrogen's desorption behavior in this process was also observed and it turned out that hydrogen desorbs in two stages, i.e., firstly diffusible hydrogen and trapped hydrogen afterward.
Quantification of hydrogen diffusion Coefficients and Effusion Behaviour in Duplex Steel Weld Metals
(2012)
A 20 mm thick heat resistant 13CrMoV9-10 steel was welded using a multi-pass submerged arc tandem setup on a 3-D testing facility designed to prevent shrinkage both during the welding and the subsequent cooling to room temperature. The effects of variations in pre-heating and interpass temperatures on the local stresses were monitored by in situ measurement of reaction forces and bending moments during welding and the subsequent dehydrogenation heat treatment. The austenite to bainite transformation and its effects on the overall loads were monitored through the use of a high sampling rate. Increasing the pre-heating and interpass temperatures led to a rise in reaction forces and bending moments. The bending moments originated from the eccentric force transmission over the backing, with a concomitant risk of fracture, especially in the critical root zone. Although the pre-heating and interpass temperatures had a strong effect on the reaction forces, their effect on the bending moments upon cooling to room temperature was negligible.
The purpose of the present study is to show the feasibility of examining hydrogen desorption in technical iron samples using neutron radiography at the ANTARES facility of the FRM II research reactor, Technische Universität München. It has been shown that this method is appropriate for in situ determination of hydrogen Desorption for concentrations as low as 20 ppmH. Experiments were carried out in the temperature range from room temperature up to 260 °C. Measurement was based on direct comparison between electrochemically hydrogen-loaded iron samples and hydrogen-free reference samples at the same temperature.
This enables the determination of hydrogen concentration as a function of time and temperature. Ex situ carrier gas hot extraction experiments using the same temperature–time profiles as the neutron radiography experiments have been used to calibrate the greyscale values of the radiographs to defined hydrogen concentrations. It can be stated that hydrogen desorption correlates with sample temperature.
Solid-state phase transformations and the evolution of thermal and elastic strains in novel low temperature transformation (LTT) weld filler materials in the near surface region are monitored in real time by means of an innovative experimental set-up at the PDIFF (powder diffraction) beamline at the synchrotron light source ANKA (Angströmquelle Karlsruhe) at the KIT (Karlsruhe Institute for Technology). The key components of the diffraction set-up are two fast microstrip line detectors, which enables the strain evolution to be followed as a function of time and temperature for a 0.5?s counting time. During controlled heating and cooling cycles, as well as during near welding cycles, the martensite–austenite–martensite phase transitions are analysed. The transformation kinetics are monitored during resistance heating of small chips of the pure LTT alloys and during gas tungsten arc welding of simplified LTT welds using a specially designed welding rig for in-situ studies on the diffraction instruments. Under the mechanically unconstrained condition allowing free thermal expansion and shrinkage, the LTT alloys are found to exhibit decreasing transformation temperatures Ac and MS and increasing phase fraction of retained austenite for increasing Ni content. The strain evolution during welding reveals increased compressive stresses upon welding, which is attributed to the martensite formation upon cooling, which counteracts the thermal contraction strains. Comparison of the transformation temperatures reveals higher values than in the pure LTT alloys, but no variation between the different alloys. On the one hand, this is attributed to preferred grain orientation affecting the diffraction measurements and the determination of the transformation temperatures. On the other hand, it is possible that with the different chemical compositions of the LTT alloys and the mechanical constraints during welding, the evolution of the residual strain and stress may vary and result in counteracting affects with respect to lowered martensite start temperatures.
In-situ analysis of solid state phase transformation in TRIP-aided steels by synchrotron diffraction
(2011)
Energy dispersive synchrotron diffraction (EDXRD) analysis and 3 dimensional digital image correlations were conducted to investigate the stress and strain effected transformation behavior during tensile loading of low alloyed TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel. This technique allowed for phase specific stress measurement during certain tensile load steps in the elastic and also plastic regime. Additionally the simultaneous determination of the load dependent phase content was realized. The results show that the martensite transformation starts only after exceeding the overall yield point and is finished before reaching the uniform elongation, whereas a large portion of the austenite remains unchanged in the structure. Furthermore, the martensite transformation related to the stress in the γ-phase and α-phase was analyzed and quantified.
Energy-dispersive x-ray diffraction offers the possibility for measurement and evaluation of diffraction spectra containing information of various diffraction lines of all contributing crystalline phases of a material. Combined strain imaging and diffraction analysis was conducted during the tensile test of a low alloyed transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel in order to investigate the transformation induced plasticity, strain hardening, and load partitioning effects. Optical strain imaging allowed for determination of localized true strains from three-dimensional deformations measured in situ. High-energy synchrotron radiation has permitted diffraction analysis in transmission mode to gather information from the material interior. Phase-specific stress evolution during loading could be observed applying the sin2ψ technique during certain load steps. The strains of the individual lattice planes were determined in different locations under varying angles between loading and perpendicular direction. Using energy-dispersive methods it was also possible to determine the transformation behaviour during elastic and plastic regime taking into account a large number of diffraction lines. The results show that the approach practised here enables one to pull together macroscopic and phase-specific microscopic material behaviour in order to improve existing models for prediction of complex load situations.
Hot crack assessment during production and processing of metallic materials is an essential prerequisite for the safety of welded structures. The hot cracking investigations presented here were carried out as part of a study aimed at the development of Cr/Ni low transformation temperature filler materials. Low transformation temperature alloys open up the possibility for welding high strength steels. The externally loaded Modified Varestraint Transvarestraint hot cracking test was employed in the experiments described. The hot cracking resistance was evaluated with the help of light microscopy applied at the specimen surface. The proportionality between hot cracking susceptibility and Cr/Ni alloy content was explained by the altered solidification kinetics and by the enlarged solidification interval. The internal crack paths and the three-dimensional structure of the crack net in the material volume were examined using X-ray computer tomography. The total crack lengths for different material depths and circumjacent rectangular volumes, respectively, were be determined. An increasing hot cracking susceptibility with increasing Cr/Ni alloy content was also be established for the specimen volume.
We discuss the stability of weld residual strain under static and quasi cyclic transverse tensile loading in the elastic and elastic–plastic region. The test welds were joined with low transformation temperature weld filler materials with 10 wt% Cr and varying Ni-content from 8 to 12 wt%. Using neutron diffraction the residual lattice strain in the martensitic α'- and austenitic γ-phase in the fusion zone as well as the ferritic α-phase in the heat affected zone and base metal as induced by welding, superimposed by stepwise tensile loading and after unloading was measured. The amount of retained austenite in the fusion zone increases with increasing Ni-content, but it decreases with increasing load level due to stress induced martensite formation. In the as-welded condition the transverse macroscopic residual lattice strain was found to be in low compression in the fusion zone in each weld, while the heat affected zone was in tension. Local plastic deformation of the γ-phase as a result of yielding during tensile loading in combination with the change in phase fraction resulted in increased macroscopic compression in the fusion zone. The reduced yield strength in the heat affected zone resulted in plastic deformation and a considerable shift into compression. Comparison with the cross weld distribution of the hardness and FWHM of the neutron diffraction interference lines supported the assumption of plastic deformation of the γ- and α-phase in the fusion and heat affected zone, respectively, while the α'-phase in the fusion zone was stressed within the elastic regime only. Microstructural observations as well as measurement of the local γ-phase fraction by means of laboratory X-ray diffraction in the fusion zone strengthen these observations.
This study provides an in-depth survey of current technologies and applications for assessing the cold cracking susceptibility of welded joints. From the large variety of existent cold cracking test procedures, the most important and internationally established tests are presented and evaluated in terms of their usefulness and application limits. According to the type of loading, the test procedures are classified into self-restraint and externally loaded tests. Apart from the merely metallurgical weldability tests for determining the cracking susceptibility of base materials, filler materials and weld metals, advanced test methods are presented for evaluating the cold cracking susceptibility of welded components. A salient point brought out in this respect is the fact that the level of external loading in such component weld tests can be applied independently of the welding parameters, reproducing as realistically as possible the practical application case, i.e. the level of the restraint intensity. This study includes a summarized comparison of the cold cracking procedures. It is emphasized that highly accurate consideration and reproduction of the design-specific stiffness conditions is essential in the tests for assessing the cold cracking behaviour of welded joints. Therefore, various numerical analyses are presented in a final chapter for calculating the restraint intensity as a definitive factor affecting cold cracking.
In der Beurteilung der Schweißbarkeit für die Sicherheit und Zuverlässigkeit von Bauteilen fanden bisher die aus der Interaktion zwischen den Werkstoffen und der Konstruktion resultierenden thermomechanischen Belastungen während des Schweißens und der nachfolgenden Abkühlung unter konstruktiv bedingter Schrumpfbehinderung häufig nur wenig Beachtung. Gegenüber bisherigen Untersuchungen an Kleinproben wurden daher im Rahmen dieser Arbeit bauteilrelevante Schweißverbindungen unter realistischen Spannungsverteilungen geprüft. Diese Bauteilschweißversuche wurden in einer speziellen Großprüfanlage unter Variation der Schrumpfbehinderung, des Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffes sowie der Streckenenergie durchgeführt. Dabei erweist sich das Konzept des Einspanngrades als geeignet, um die reale konstruktionsbedingte Schrumpfbehinderung auf die Versuchsanlage zu transferieren. Mittels online-Aufzeichnungen der Reaktionskräfte und -momente konnte gezeigt werden, wie sich diese Einzeleinflussgrößen jeweils auf die Höhe und den Verlauf der Reaktionskräfte und -momente auswirken und welche Bedeutung sie für die Einschätzung des Belastungsniveaus in Form von Spannungen und Dehnungen in Bauteilen besitzen. Unter anderem stellte sich heraus, dass unter relativ geringen Einspanngraden eine unkritische Eigenbelastung des Bauteiles vorliegt, jedoch bei hoher Steifigkeit die thermomechanische Beanspruchung bis zum Riss führen kann. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmalig die Wirkung der Festigkeit von Zusatzwerkstoffen auf die Spanungs-Dehnungsverteilung unter definierter Schrumpfbehinderung am Bauteil untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass unabhängig vom Grundwerkstoff ein hochfester Schweißzusatz zu geringeren Reaktionskräften führt als beim Schweißen mit einem Schweißzusatz mit vergleichsweise niedrigerer Festigkeit. Weiterhin wurde der Dehnungsverlauf beim und nach dem Schweißen unter definierter Schrumpfbehinderung mittels Dehnungsmessstreifen und einem Wegmesssystem bestimmt. Abhängig vom Schweißnahtabstand und dem Einspanngrad traten charakteristische Verformungsverläufe auf. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse konnte eine bisher ungebräuchliche jedoch notwendige Aufteilung der Schweißung in Nah- und Fernfeld erfolgen. Mit der inkrementellen Bohrlochmethode wurden die Eigenspannungen im Nahtbereich unter Einspannung, nach dem Entlasten und nach dem Wiederbelasten auf das Niveau der ursprünglich wirkenden Reaktionskräfte der Proben ermittelt und mit röntgenografischen Werten verglichen. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Einspanngrad und den Nahteigenspannungen lässt sich durch einen einfachen funktonalen Ansatz beschreiben. Den Untersuchungen wurde aufgrund der auf diesem Gebiet vorliegenden sehr unzusammenhängenden Literatur ein detaillierter Kenntnisstand vorangestellt.
All melting range alloys are subject to the risk of material-, design- and welding process-specific hot cracking during liquid to solid phase transition. The present study was focused specifically on the influence of additional external loads, e.g. resulting from component welding fabrication, on weld pool near displacements and on the associated structural hot cracking behaviour. Respective experimental investigations were conducted using the controlled tensile weldability test enabling defined additional tensile load imposition during welding. Depending on external loading, the local weld pool near transverse displacements dy and transverse displacement rates dy/dt were determined in situ during welding with the help of the digital image correlation technique. The measurements allowed time and spatially resolved identification of hot crack critical transverse displacements and displacement rates.