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Eingeladener Vortrag
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Energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) is one of the most applied methods used for the analysis of the chemical composition of solids and thin films. Recent progress in EDS (Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometer) technology has increased the general performance also in the energy range < 1 keV addressing low Z elements. Suitable test materials to be employed especially to check the low-energy EDS performance – also in line with ISO 15632 - are rather limited and mainly based on C K and F K lines. In order to obtain valid results in laboratories accredited in compliance with ISO/IEC 17025 it is necessary to periodically check the instrument performance.
The uncertainty of measurement in quantitative XPS analysis can be reduced by using a calibrated spectrometer transmission function T (E), which is usually determined by taking spectra from Au, Ag, Cu and Ge elemental reference materials. However, this approach is quite time-consuming due to required sample preparation steps like sputter cleaning etc., and the relatively big number of samples to be measured. This contribution proposes the use of the ionic liquids [C2C1im][NTf2] and [C3C1im][NTf2] as reference materials for a determination of T(E). These multi-elemental samples deliver five intensive photoemission peaks, F 1s, O 1s, N 1s, C 1s and S 2p, in an energy window from 160 eV to 700 eV which is of specific interest for applications of quantitative XPS for surface chemical analysis of soft matter, one of the major applications of XPS.
Coordination chemistry was applied to deposit pyridine-functionalized gold nanoparticles on silicon substrates. The particles were synthesized through the Brust/Schiffrin route with a subsequent ligand exchange reaction yielding well-defined particles of two different sizes. Multilayer deposition was carried out on a pyridine-terminated SAM, anchored on a hydroxyl-terminated silicon surface. Analogously, Hunter/Vögtle-type tetralactam macrocycle multilayers were deposited as well as mixed layers containing both either in an alternating sequence or as a macrocycle multilayer with a terminating nanoparticle layer. These composite layers were examined with respect to their ability to bind squaraine axles in the macrocycle cavities. The amount of guest bound is higher for the composite layer with alternating macrocycles and nanoparticles.
Covalent modification of surfaces with carbohydrates (glycans) is a prerequisite for a variety of glycomics-based biomedical applications, including functional biomaterials, glycan-arrays, and glycan-based biosensors. The chemistry of glycan immobilization plays an essential role in the bioavailability and function of surface bound carbohydrate moieties. For biomedical applications the stability over time (shelf life) of a glycan-array is a crucial factor. Basic requirements for the production of microarrays are first of all stable signals without any loss of quality. Therefore, the investigation of the shelf life for carbohydrate microarrays is an important part in the development of glycan-arrays.
Motivated by the need of reliable quality control for glycan microarrays, we developed reference arrays using fluorescent model glycans. Since the long term stability of glycan microarrays is a crucial factor for their clinical application the shelf life at different storage conditions of glycan microarrays was studied in detail using the two model glycan compounds.
Herein, we present a shelf life study of model glycan microarrays on epoxy modified glass surfaces over a period of 320 days. This was carried out using different analyzing techniques such as Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Fluorescence Spectroscopy. To analyze and interpret the ToF-SIMS dataset the multivariate technique principal component analysis (PCA) was used. The dependence of the array´s shelf life upon storage conditions was specifically studied.
The surfaces of polymeric dialyzer membranes consisting of polysulfone and polyvinylpyrrolidone were investigated regarding the lateral distribution and quantitative surface composition using time-of-flight secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Knowledge of the distribution and composition on the outer surface region is of utmost importance for understanding the biocompatibility of such dialyzer membranes. Both flat membranes and hollow fiber membranes were studied.
We report a surface analytical study of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) microparticles (beads) with a grafted shell of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) with thicknesses up to 4 nm using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and near-edge X-ray adsorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy. These polymer microparticles were analyzed before and after reaction of the surface carboxyl (CO2H) groups with 2,2,2-trifluoroethylamine (TFEA) to gain a better understanding of methods with use of covalently bound probe molecules for surface group analysis. The results obtained with chemical derivatization XPS using TFEA are discussed in terms of surface quantification of reactive CO2H groups on these PAA-coated microparticles. A labeling yield of about 50% was found for TFEA-derivatized particles with amounts of surface-grafted CO2H groups of 99 µmol/g or more, which is consistent with predicted reaction yields for homogeneously dispersed PAA hydrogels.
Static secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) has become a major analytical technique for the analysis of solid surfaces. In the last years it has also been used for the analysis of liquid/frozen surfaces from ionic liquids1-5. However, the mechanism for the emission of secondary ions has not been investigated so far, especially for the state of the art liquid metal ion guns (LMIG), such as the Bi or the BiMn LMIGs. These sources are not only able to provide monoatomic primary ions, but also singly and doubly charged polyatomic primary ion cluster. This new development has led to the investigation of the primary ion particle to specific parameters in order to determine the capabilities of such LMIGs on different target samples. To further the principle understanding of secondary ion emission, a systematic study using Bi1-7+ and Bi1,3,5,7++ primary ions on ionic liquids with considerably different strength of inter-ionic interactions was performed. As model samples the ionic liquids 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C4C1im][Ac] and [C4C1im][PF6]) were used. To compare spectra or the performance of primary ion particles on substances or substance classes, the SIMS data were evaluated by calculating secondary ion yields, static SIMS limit, disappearing cross section, ion formation efficiency and fragmentation.
Process control of thin organic-inorganic (multi)layer systems using TOF-SIMS assisted with PCA
(2014)
The production of high-quality self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) followed by layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly of macrocycles is essential for nanotechnology applications based on functional surface films. To help interpret the large amount of data generated by a standard ToF-SIMS measurement, principal component analysis (PCA) was used. For two examples, the advantages of a combination of ToF-SIMS and PCA for quality control and for the optimization of layer-by-layer self-assembly are shown. The first example investigates how different cleaning methods influence the quality of SAM template formation. The second example focuses on the LbL self-assembly of macrocycles and the corresponding stepwise surface modification.
Die Bestimmung der chemischen Zusammensetzung einer Oberfläche und deren Quantifizierung mit wichtig für die Qualitätssicherung vieler industrieller Produkte und Materialien. Die chemische Beschaffenheit von Oberflächen bzw. Grenzflächen muss genau kontrolliert werden um die Produktqualität zu garantieren. Diese Prüfung ist oft auch für individuelle Prozessschritte durchzuführen.
Referenzmaterialien sind unverzichtbar, wenn es darum geht, die Richtigkeit und Zuverlässigkeit von Messergebnissen zu gewährleisten. Falsche Messwerte können zu erheblichen Mehrkosten führen. Referenzmaterialien gewährleisten die Rückführung von Messergebnissen auf anerkannte Bezugsgrößen (Standards), dienen der Ermittlung der Messunsicherheit von analytischen Verfahren und wer-den zur Kalibrierung verwendet. Für zertifizierte/akkreditierte (ISO 9000 und ISO 17025) Prüf- und Kalibrierlaboratorien ist der Einsatz von Referenzmaterialien in der Qualitätssicherung obligatorisch.
Ionischen Flüssigkeiten (IL) sind vielversprechende Kandidaten für die Verwendung als Referenzmaterial in oberflächenanalytischen Verfahren wie Energie-dispersive Röntgenspektroskopie (EDX) und Röntgenphotoelektronenspektroskopie (XPS). In zwei Machbarkeitsstudien wurde eine geeignete Klasse von ILs als Referenzmaterial getestet:
Für die Anwendung in EDX wurde die Eignung von ILs als Referenzmaterial zur routinemäßigen Überprüfung der Energieskala, der Energieauflösung und der Spektrometer-Effizienz untersucht. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass mit einer einzigen Messung an einem einzigen Referenzmaterial mehrere Geräteparameter überprüft werden können. Damit ist es im niederenergetischen Bereich möglich, regelmäßige Funktionsprüfungen von Spektrometern durchzuführen, aber auch die Leistungsfähigkeit verschiedener Spektrometer zu vergleichen
Für Die Anwendung in XPS wurde die Eignung von ILs als Referenzmaterial zur Bestimmung der Transmissionsfunktion T(E) von Photoelektronenspektrometern getestet. Dazu wurde die Auswertesoftware UNIFIT entsprechend adaptiert und erlaubt nun T(E) anhand der bekannten Stöchiometrie der IL zu ermitteln. Es wird gezeigt, dass durch die Verwendung ausgewählter ILs als Referenzmaterial die Genauigkeit der Quantifizierung von XPS Daten unter Nutzung einer experi-mentell bestimmten T(E) wesentlich verbessert werden kann.
Ionic liquids (ILs) are proposed as simple and efficient test materials to evaluate the performance of energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers (EDS) in the low energy range below 1 keV. By only one measurement, C Kα, N Kα, O Kα, and F Kα X-ray lines can be excited. Additionally, the S Kα line at 2.3 keV and, particularly, the S L series at 149 eV complete the picture with X-ray lines offered by the selected ILs. The well-known (certifiable) elemental composition of the ILs selected in the present study can be used to check the accuracy of results produced with the available EDS quantification routines in the low energy range, simultaneously, for several low atomic number elements. A comparison with other reference materials in use for testing the performance of EDS in the low energy range is included.
Analytical routines for a comprehensive in-depth morphological, structural, and chemical characterization of functionalized TiO2 films by using different state-of-the-art analytical techniques are presented and discussed with the main objective to identify potential reference TiO2 coating parameters able to be certified at a later stage. TiO2 films fabricated by two different synthetic procedures as representative for two main large-scale applications were selected: (i) pulsed d.c. magnetron sputtering for photocatalytic applications and (ii) screen printing from preformed anatase nanoparticles. The screen-printed films were further loaded with a sensitizing dye for application as a dye-sensitized solar cell. Film properties such as microstructure and crystallographic texture of pulsed d.c. magnetron sputtering synthesized films were systematically studied by means of scanning nanobeam electron diffraction in a transmission electron microscope and the surface and inner morphology by scanning electron microscopy. The dye distribution over the depth of screen-printed TiO2 layers was analyzed before and after dye-loading by means of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy at scanning electronmicroscope, Auger electron spectroscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. The long-term goal of the present study is the improvement of quality of the TiO2 film parameters as measured by using different types of reference TiO2 coatings having specific parameters certified.
Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy are well-acknowledged tools in materials characterization. The ability to map chemical species on the surface of an investigated sample with often low mass detection limits makes ToF-SIMS an essential tool in fields where many question marks concerning Degradation processes and damage mechanisms exist. The aim of this paper is to describe the power of data fusion of ToF-SIMS and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy results employing computational methods for multivariate data Analysis such as principal component analysis. As a case study the investigation of hydrogen distribution in an artificially charged Duplex stainless steel microstructure is presented aiming on a better understanding of hydrogen embrittlement.
Argon cluster sputtering of an organic multilayer reference material consisting of two organic components, 4,4'-bis[N-(1-naphthyl-1-)-N-phenyl- amino]-biphenyl (NPB) and aluminium tris-(8-hydroxyquinolate) (Alq3), materials commonly used in organic light-emitting diodes industry, was carried out using time-of-flight SIMS in dual beam mode. The sample used in this study consists of a ~400-nm-thick NPB matrix with 3-nm marker layers of Alq3 at depth of ~50, 100, 200 and 300 nm. Argon cluster sputtering provides a constant sputter yield throughout the depth profiles, and the sputter yield volumes and depth resolution are presented for Ar-cluster sizes of 630, 820, 1000, 1250 and 1660 atoms at a kinetic energy of 2.5 keV. The effect of cluster size in this material and over this range is shown to be negligible.
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTIL) are composed of ions only and are defined as molten salts with a melting point below 100°C1. They have numerous interesting physical properties such as high thermal stability, a wide liquid range and a tuneable viscosity. Besides their low melting points they have also a very low vapour pressure, which enables their analysis in ultra high vacuum devices such as XPS2, 3 and ToF-SIMS2, 4. A systematic study with different ionic liquids was carried out by means of time-of-fight secondary-ion-mass-spectrometry in positive and negative ion mode. Thereby a variation of the anion in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium based ionic liquids, a variation of the cation including a variation of the side chain length, in bis(triuoromethylsulfonyl)imide based ionic liquids was taken into account. The compounds were measured under bismuth cluster ion (Bi7+) bombardment, and spectral information and general rules for the fragmentation pattern are presented. Evidence for cation-anion interactions (e.g. hydrogen bonding), due to high molecular secondary cluster ions, could be found. The interaction strength could be estimated by ToF-SIMS via correlation of the secondary anion intensity to secondary cluster ion intensity ratio with donor and acceptor numbers.
Deuterium permeation and cracking in duplex steels as viewed by ToF-SIMS and HR-SEM with data fusion
(2016)
Better understanding of hydrogen assisted degradation and trapping mecha-nisms requires sufficient imaging techniques for respective hydrogen-microstructure interaction studies, in particular with multi-phase metallic micro-structures [1]. The present work is focusing on the elucidation of deuterium be-havior in two austenitic-ferritic duplex stainless steels (DSS) under the assumption that deuterium behaves in many ways similarly to hydrogen [2]. For case studies standard 2205 and lean 2101 DSSs were chosen due to the extensive use of these steels in industry [3]. The analyses were conducted by using a novel in-situ permeation and Time-of-Flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) imaging technique or by ex-situ ToF-SIMS imaging following electrochemical charging experiments. Another pioneering procedure was data fusion (including chemometry) of results of powerful laterally resolved chemical analysis and high resolution structural characterization techniques .
Results for the ex-situ observations showed a different influence of deuterium loading on the two steel grades as well as different damage mechanisms in each phase. Formation of sub-surface blisters between the ferrite and austenite were obtained in both the standard and the lean DSS. In both steels, an increased deuterium concentration was observed around deformed regions such as cracks, confirming that they originate from the presence of deuterium [4]. The formation of parallel cracks was obtained only in the austenite within the standard duplex whereas in the lean duplex the highest intensity of deuterium was obtained in the austenite along the ferrite-austenite interphase.
In comparison, application of the novel in-situ permeation technique enabled to register and record the deuterium permeation through the material and the respective saturation sequence of the two phases as well as the interfaces. Faster diffusion of the deuterium was observed in the ferrite and a direct proof for deuterium enrichment at the austenite-ferrite interface has been given [1]. The integration of the specified techniques gives a better insight into the processes leading to hydrogen induced failure. These two experimental techniques provide very valuable tools for elucidation of respective metallurgical failure mechanisms that can be used for the validation of respective numerical models for hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC).
Interfaces provide the structural basis for function as, for example, encountered in nature in the membrane-embedded photosystem or in technology in solar cells. Synthetic functional multilayers of molecules cooperating in a coupled manner can be fabricated on surfaces through layer-by-layer self-assembly. Ordered arrays of stimulus-responsive rotaxanes undergoing well-controlled axle shuttling are excellent candidates for coupled mechanical motion. Such stimulus-responsive surfaces may help integrate synthetic molecular machines in larger systems exhibiting even macroscopic effects or generating mechanical work from chemical energy through cooperative action. The present work demonstrates the successful deposition of ordered mono- and multilayers of chemically switchable rotaxanes on gold surfaces. Rotaxane mono- and multilayers are shown to reversibly switch in a coupled manner between two ordered states as revealed by linear dichroism effects in angle-resolved NEXAFS spectra. Such a concerted switching process is observed only when the surfaces are well packed, while less densely packed surfaces lacking lateral order do not exhibit such effects.
Biosensors are of essential importance in medical and biological diagnostics. Often, they are produced using silane chemistry on glass or silicon oxide surfaces.
However, controlling that silane chemistry is challenging. Here, we present an alternative strategy to form functional organic layers and biosensors on silicon Nitride (Si3N4). H-terminated Si3N4 films are used to generate reactive azide groups by various azidation methods. Biomolecular probes can then be immobilized using click chemistry reactions with the azide groups and due to its high sensitivity in XPS a fluorine-substituted test alkyne was utilized to optimize click chemistry conditions. After that a biotinylated alkyne was clicked to Si3N4 surfaces followed by immobilization of streptavidin as analyte in a model assay. The functionalized surfaces were thoroughly characterized by surface chemical analysis using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)spectroscopy.
Hydrothermal synthesis of anatase TiO2 nanosheets with a high fraction of exposed {001} facets and related high photocatalytic activity - as an alternative to bipyramidal anatase TiO2 nanoparticles mainly exposing the {101} facets. The scope of the material preparation work is the thermal reduction of residual fluorides from HF (capping agent) induced during the synthesis of TiO2 nanosheets by calcination at 873K. The analytical task consists of detection and localization of fluorine present at the surface and/or in the bulk of TiO2 nanosheets before and after calcination by SEM/EDX, Auger electron spectroscopy and ToF-SIMS.
In Near Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy X-Ray photons are used to excite tightly bound core electrons to low-lying unoccupied orbitals of the system. This technique offers insight into the electronic structure of the system as well as useful structural information. In this work, we apply NEXAFS to two kinds of imidazolium based ionic liquids ([CnC₁im]⁺[NTf₂]⁻ and [C₄C₁im]⁺[I]⁻). A combination of measurements and quantum chemical calculations of C K and N K NEXAFS resonances is presented. The simulations, based on the transition potential density functional theory method (TP-DFT), reproduce all characteristic features observed by the experiment. Furthermore, a detailed assignment of resonance features to excitation centers (carbon or nitrogen atoms) leads to a consistent interpretation of the spectra.