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Eingeladener Vortrag
- nein (52)
We designed micro-hollow cathode discharge prototypes under atmospheric pressure and investi-gated their acoustic characteristics. For the acoustic model of the discharge, we correlated the self-organisation effect of the current density distribution with the ideal model of an acoustic membrane. For validation of the obtained model, sound particle velocity spectroscopy was used to detect and analyse the acoustic emission experimentally. The results have shown a behaviour similar to the ideal acoustic membrane. Therefore, the acoustic excitation is decomposable into its eigenfrequencies and predictable. The model was unified utilising the gas exhaust velocity caused by the electrohydrodynamic force. The results may allow a contactless prediction of the current density distribution by measuring the acoustic emission or using the micro-discharge as a tunable acoustic source for specific applications as well.
Air-coupled ultrasound (ACU) is increasingly used for automated and contactless inspection of large-scale composite structures as well as for non-destructive testing (NDT) of water-sensitive or porous materials. The major challenge to overcome using ACU in NDT is the enormous loss of ultrasonic energy at each solid-air interface caused by the high acoustic impedance mismatch. Resonant low-frequency piezoceramic transducers are specially designed to achieve high sound pressure levels. For an expanded use of this technique, however, the spatial resolution needs to be increased.
Recent studies of our collaborative research group demonstrated the successful application of a resonance-free, highly sensitive receiver that uses a Fabry-Pérot etalon instead of piezoceramic materials or membranes. However, to reach the full potential of this broadband small-aperture optical microphone, novel transmitter concepts have to be developed and evaluated for advanced NDT applications.
Different types of transmitter were tested in combination with the optical microphone acting as receiver and they were compared to conventional piezoceramic transducers in through-transmission mode. Monolithic carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) and CFRP sandwich structures containing different defect types were inspected. Presented results are processed as C-scan images and further evaluated for spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity of each measurement setup. Novel transmitter concepts, such as ferroelectret and thermoacoustic emitters, show promising findings with a considerably improved time and spatial resolution for ACU-NDT.
Commercially available air-coupled transducers applied in non-destructive testing consist of a piezocomposite material and matching layers to reduce the impedance mismatch between the transducer and air. This contribution is an overview of innovative approaches using new piezoelectric materials and other physical principles to transmit and receive an ultrasonic pulse in air. Capacitive and piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs and PMUTs) produce high pressure levels, but they exhibit a very narrow bandwidth. Optical laser-based methods for transmitting and receiving ultrasound promise a higher bandwidth, but do not achieve the same sensitivity as conventional air-coupled transducers. Ferroelectrets are charged cellular polymers exhibiting piezoelectric properties, having a very small acoustic impedance well matched to air. Ferroelectret transducers achieve about the same bandwidth as the most broadband conventional air-coupled transducers, having a higher sensitivity. Thermoacoustic transducers use heat to initiate an acoustic wave, acting as transmitters in ultrasonic range. Thermoacoustic transducers enable excitation of extremely broadband pulses while producing high pressure levels, which opens new possibilities for advanced signal processing. The newest member of the family of air-coupled ultrasonic transmitters is the plasma-based transducer, using both the thermoacoustic effect and the movements of the ions (so called ionic wind) to create acoustic waves.
Conventional ultrasonic testing involves the application of a fluid couplant for impedance matching. Increasing use of lightweight structures, composite materials and adhesive joints mostly in aerospace and automotive industry created an increasing interest in air-coupled ultrasonic testing methods, to protect sensitive surfaces and simplify maintenance. Commercially available air-coupled transducers consist of a piezocomposite material and matching layers to reduce the impedance mismatch between the transducer and air. This contribution is an overview of innovative approaches using new piezoelectric materials and other physical principles to transmit and receive an ultrasonic pulse in air.
Capacitive and piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs and PMUTs) produce high pressure levels, but they exhibit a very narrow bandwidth. Optical laser-based methods for transmitting and receiving ultrasound promise a higher bandwidth, but do not achieve the same sensitivity as conventional air-coupled transducers. Ferroelectrets are charged cellular polymers exhibiting piezoelectric properties, having a very small acoustic impedance well matched to air. Ferroelectret transducers achieve about the same bandwidth as the most broadband conventional air-coupled transducers, having a higher sensitivity. Thermoacoustic transducers use heat to initiate an acoustic wave, acting as transmitters in ultrasonic range. Thermoacoustic transducers enable excitation of extremely broadband pulses while producing high pressure levels, which opens new possibilities for advanced signal processing. The newest member of the family of air-coupled ultrasonic transmitters is the plasma-based transducer, using both the thermoacoustic effect and the movements of the ions (so called ionic wind) to create acoustic waves.
Air-coupled ferroelectret ultrasonic transducers applied to testing of fiber-reinforced polymers
(2013)
The necessity and demand for nondestructive testing of wood-based materials which can automatically scan huge areas of wood is increasing. Air-coupled ultrasound (ACU) is used to detect defects and damage without altering the structure permanently. Using through transmission it is possible to detect even small holes and missing adhesive. If only one side of an object is accessible the reflection mode is preferred at the expense of a reduced resolution and penetration depth. Novel ferroelectret transducers with a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) enable a high-precision structure recognition. The transducers made of cellular polypropylene (PP) are quite suitable for ACU testing due to their extremely low Young’s modulus and low density which result in a favorable acoustic impedance for the transmission of ultrasonic waves between the transducer and air. Thus, defects such as delamination, rot, and cracks can be detected. Promising results were obtained under laboratory conditions with frequencies from 90 kHz to 200 kHz. The advantage of these ACU transducers is that they do not require contact to the sample, are accurate, and cost effective. Ultrasonic quality assurance for Wood is an important attempt to increase the acceptance of wooden structures and towards sustainability in civil engineering in general.
High sensitivity is an important requirement for air-coupled ultrasonic sensors applied to materials testing. With a lower acoustic impedance than any piezoelectric material, charged cellular polypropylene (PP) offers better matching to air with a similar piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric properties of charged cellular PP originate from their polarization, creating permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the sensor can be increased by applying additional dc bias voltage, as it has been done already for transmitters. This work presents the first ultrasonic sensor based on charged cellular PP including a high-voltage module providing dc bias voltage up to 2 kV. This bias voltage led to an increase in the signal-to-noise ratio of up to 15 ± 1 dB. The measurement of the received signal depending on the applied bias voltage is proposed as a new method of determining the internal voltage of ferroelectrets. The sensor combined with a cellular PP transmitter was applied to nondestructive testing of a rotor blade segment and glued-laminated timber, enabling imaging of the internal structure of these specimens with a thickness around 4 cm.
Highly sensitive air-coupled ultrasonic sensors are essential for various applications such as testing of composite materials. One of the major challenges for the development of air-coupled ultrasonic sensors is the impedance matching to air. With a lower acoustic impedance than the usual piezoelectric materials, charged cellular polypropylene film (cPP) offers better matching to air with a similar piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric behaviour demonstrated by cPP comes from polarized air cells that create a permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the sensor varies with the application of an additional DC bias voltage. Thus, this work presents a cPP ultrasonic sensor with an improvement of up to 15 ± 1 dB on the signal-to-noise ratio.
Highly sensitive air-coupled ultrasonic sensors are essential for various applications such as testing of composite materials. One of the major challenges for the development of air-coupled ultrasonic sensors is the impedance matching to air. With a lower acoustic impedance than the usual piezoelectric materials, charged cellular polypropylene film (cPP) offers better matching to air with a similar piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric behaviour demonstrated by cPP comes from polarized air cells that create a permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the sensor varies with the application of an additional DC bias voltage. Thus, this work presents a cPP ultrasonic sensor with an improvement of up to 15 ± 1 dB on the signal-to-noise ratio.
Common air-coupled transducers for non-destructive testing consist of a piezocomposite material and several matching layers. Better acoustical matching to air is achieved by transducers based on charged cellular polypropylene (PP). This material has about hundred times lower acoustic impedance than any piezocomposite, having about the same piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric properties of cellular PP are caused by the polarization of air cells. Alternatively, a ferroelectret receiver can be understood as a capacitive microphone with internal polarization creating permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the receiver can be increased by applying additional bias voltage. We present an ultrasonic receiver based on cellular PP including a high-voltage module providing bias voltage up to 2 kV. The application of bias voltage increased the signal by 12 to 15 dB with only 1 dB increase of the noise.
This receiver was combined with a cellular PP transmitter in through transmission to inspect several test specimens consisting of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a porous closed-cell PVC core. These test specimens were inspected before and after load. Fatigue cracks in the porous PVC core and some fatigue damage in the face sheets were detected. These test specimens were originally developed to emulate a rotor blade segment of a wind power plant. Similar composite materials are used in lightweight aircrafts for the general aviation. The other inspected test specimen was a composite consisted of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a wooden core. The structure of the wooden core could be detected only with cellular PP transducers, while commercial air-coupled transducers lacked the necessary sensitivity. Measured on a 4-mm thick carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer plate, cellular PP transducers with additional bias voltage achieved a 32 dB higher signal-to-noise ratio than commercial air-coupled transducers.
Common air-coupled transducers for non-destructive testing consist of a piezocomposite material and several matching layers. Better acoustical matching to air is achieved by transducers based on charged cellular polypropylene (PP). This material has about hundred times lower acoustic impedance than any piezocomposite, having about the same piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric properties of cellular PP are caused by the polarization of air cells. Alternatively, a ferroelectret receiver can be understood as a capacitive microphone with internal polarization creating permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the receiver can be increased by applying additional bias voltage. We present an ultrasonic receiver based on cellular PP including a high-voltage module providing bias voltage up to 2 kV. The application of bias voltage increased the signal by 12 to 15 dB with only 1 dB increase of the noise.
This receiver was combined with a cellular PP transmitter in through transmission to inspect several test specimens consisting of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a porous closed-cell PVC core. These test specimens were inspected before and after load. Fatigue cracks in the porous PVC core and some fatigue damage in the face sheets were detected. These test specimens were originally developed to emulate a rotor blade segment of a wind power plant. Similar composite materials are used in lightweight aircrafts for the general aviation. The other inspected test specimen was a composite consisted of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a wooden core. The structure of the wooden core could be detected only with cellular PP transducers, while commercial air-coupled transducers lacked the necessary sensitivity. Measured on a 4-mm thick carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer plate, cellular PP transducers with additional bias voltage achieved a 32 dB higher signal-to-noise ratio than commercial air-coupled transducers.
Adhesively bonded aluminum components have been widely used in the aerospace industry for weight-efficient and damage-tolerant structures. Automated squirter jet immersion ultrasonic testing is a common inspection technique to assure the bond integrity of large, contoured assemblies. However, squirter jet inspection presents several limitations in scanning speed, related to water splash noise over protruding stiffeners and splash interference crosstalk in multi-channel inspection systems. Air-coupled ultrasonic testing has been evaluated as an alternative, possibly offering the benefits of increased throughput by enabling higher speeds, and eliminating the contamination concerns and maintenance issues of water couplant systems. Adhesive joints of multi-layer aluminum plates with artificial disbonds were inspected with novel air-coupled ultrasonic probes based on cellular polypropylene. Disbonds of various sizes were engineered in several multi-layer configurations and at various depths. Results were compared with squirter jet immersion and conventional piezoelectric transducer designs in terms of scan contrast, resolution and inspection time.
The use of composite materials has been steadily growing during the last decades, as well as the requirements on quality, mechanical properties and geometries of the parts. Some processes, like the 3D UV pultrusion process, manufacture parts that are long and thin, whilst having a varying curvature radius along the same part or even no curvature at all. Studying their mechanical properties along the main fiber direction, which is of foremost interest, is not an easy task nor efficient with most nondestructive methods. The use of air-coupled ultrasonics to evaluate the properties of composite materials has been widely proved by several authors, mainly using guided waves that provide information on the orthotropic properties of this kind of materials. Most of this work has focused on analyzing straight plate-like geometries, due to the simplicity to generate desired Lamb modes in the plate and analyze the behavior of guided waves inside the plate. In our contribution, the differences in the propagation of Lamb waves for straight and curved geometry glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) have been analyzed. A GFRP test sample cured with UV light with one straight and one curved area has been evaluated. The responses of the generated Lamb wave modes for the straight and curved geometries have been compared, accounting for variations in the transducer characteristics, e.g. resonance behavior and focusing.
Air-coupled ultrasound was used for assessing natural defects in wood boards by through-transmission scanning measurements. Gas matrix piezoelectric (GMP) and ferroelectret (FE) transducers were studied. The study also included tests with additional bias voltage with the ferroelectret receivers. Signal analyses, analyses of the measurement dynamics and statistical analyses of the signal parameters were conducted. After the measurement series, the samples were cut from the measurement regions and the defects were analyzed visually from the cross sections. The ultrasound responses were compared with the results of the visual examination of the cross sections. With the additional bias voltage, the ferroelectret measurement showed increased signal-to-noise ratio, which is especially important for air-coupled measurement of high-attenuation materials like wood. When comparing the defect response of GMP and FE sensors, it was found that FE sensors had more sensitive dynamic range, resulting from better s/n ratio and short response pulse. Classification test was made to test the possibility of detecting defects in sound wood. Machine learning methods including decision trees, k-nearest neighbor and support vector machine were used. The classification accuracy varied between 72 and 77% in the tests. All the tested machine learning methods could be used efficiently for the classification.
Modern and energy-efficient materials are essential for innovative designs for aerospace and automotive industries. Current technologies for rapid manufacturing such as additive manufacturing and liquid composite moulding by polymer Extrusion allow innovative ways of creating robust and lightweight constructions. Commercially available printing devices often use polylactide (PLA) or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) as raw material. Therefore, parameters like the infill ratio, influencing the ability to resist mechanical stress, may have a beneficial impact on the lifetime of components.
These manufacturing technologies require a good knowledge about materials and even adapted non-destructive testing technologies and methods. Airborne ultrasonic testing has beneficial advantages for testing those lightweight constructions. It is a contact-free testing method, which does not require a liquid couplant. Therefore, it allows fast test cycles without any unwanted alternations of the material properties due to interactions with any coupling liquid. This contribution deals with the characterisation of printed specimens based on PLA by using airborne ultrasound and presents the current edge of non-destructive testing and evaluation using airborne ultrasonic transducers. The specimens, manufactured by polymer extrusion, are printed as thin plates. The infill ratio, as well as the material thickness, were varied to model density imperfections with different geometric shapes and properties. For better understanding of the limits of airborne ultrasonic testing in transmission, we compared own-developed transducers based on different physical principles: on ferroelectrets, on the thermoacoustic effect, as well as a new type of transducers based on gas discharges.
Modern and energy-efficient materials are essential for innovative designs for aerospace and automotive industries. Current technologies for rapid manufacturing such as additive manufacturing and liquid composite moulding by polymer Extrusion allow innovative ways of creating robust and lightweight constructions. Commercially available printing devices often use polylactide (PLA) or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) as raw material. Therefore, parameters like the infill ratio, influencing the ability to resist mechanical stress, may have a beneficial impact on the lifetime of components.
These manufacturing technologies require a good knowledge about materials and even adapted non-destructive testing technologies and methods. Airborne ultrasonic testing has beneficial advantages for testing those lightweight constructions. It is a contact-free testing method, which does not require a liquid couplant. Therefore, it allows fast test cycles without any unwanted alternations of the material properties due to interactions with any coupling liquid. This contribution deals with the characterisation of printed specimens based on PLA by using airborne ultrasound and presents the current edge of non-destructive testing and evaluation using airborne ultrasonic transducers. The specimens, manufactured by polymer extrusion, are printed as thin plates. The infill ratio, as well as the material thickness, were varied to model density imperfections with different geometric shapes and properties. For better understanding of the limits of airborne ultrasonic testing in transmission, we compared own-developed transducers based on different physical principles: on ferroelectrets, on the thermoacoustic effect, as well as a new type of transducers based on gas discharges.
Airborne ultrasonic inspection is performed in through transmission, where the test piece (e.g. adhesive joint or polymer-based composite plate) is placed between the transmitter and the receiver. However, many structures with difficult shapes allow only one-sided inspection. The strong reflection of the signal from the surface overshadows the signals from the inside, so that broadband pulses are required. Thermoacoustic transmission, where the thermal energy of an electrically heated electrode is transformed into the acoustic energy of an ultrasonic wave, opens the possibility to excite broadband pulses and thus to inspect objects with one-sided access.
We present various thermoacoustic transducers consisting of an electrically conductive film on a solid substrate. The first type of transducer is a transmitter with an indium-tin-oxide electrode on a glass substrate combined with a laser Doppler vibrometer as a receiver. The second type of transducer combines thermoacoustic transmission and piezoelectric reception, having a titanium electrode as a transmitter deposited onto charged cellular polypropylene serving as a piezoelectric receiver.
Using a focusing thermoacoustic transmitter and a separate cellular polypropylene receiver, a through-transmission inspection of a 4 mm thick CFRP test piece with inserts as small as 1 mm was performed. The same emitter and a laser vibrometer as a receiver were used for a one-sided inspection of a Plexiglas block with a cross hole at 15 mm depth. A twin probe consisting of a thermoacoustic transmitter on a cellular polypropylene receiver was applied to a profile measurement on a step wedge with flat bottom holes. The smallest detected diameter of a flat bottom hole was 1 mm. Sound pressure level above 140dB was achieved with each of these transmitters. Thermoacoustic transmitters enable a step towards one-sided air-coupled ultrasonic inspection.
Airborne ultrasonic inspection is performed in through transmission, where the test piece (e.g. adhesive joint or polymer-based composite plate) is placed between the transmitter and the receiver. However, many structures with difficult shapes allow only one-sided inspection. The strong reflection of the signal from the surface overshadows the signals from the inside, so that broadband pulses are required. Thermoacoustic transmission, where the thermal energy of an electrically heated electrode is transformed into the acoustic energy of an ultrasonic wave, opens the possibility to excite broadband pulses and thus to inspect objects with one-sided access.
We present various thermoacoustic transducers consisting of an electrically conductive film on a solid substrate. The first type of transducer is a transmitter with an indium-tin-oxide electrode on a glass substrate combined with a laser Doppler vibrometer as a receiver. The second type of transducer combines thermoacoustic transmission and piezoelectric reception, having a titanium electrode as a transmitter deposited onto charged cellular polypropylene serving as a piezoelectric receiver.
Using a focusing thermoacoustic transmitter and a separate cellular polypropylene receiver, a through-transmission inspection of a 4 mm thick CFRP test piece with inserts as small as 1 mm was performed. The same emitter and a laser vibrometer as a receiver were used for a one-sided inspection of a Plexiglas block with a cross hole at 15 mm depth. A twin probe consisting of a thermoacoustic transmitter on a cellular polypropylene receiver was applied to a profile measurement on a step wedge with flat bottom holes. The smallest detected diameter of a flat bottom hole was 1 mm. Sound pressure level above 140dB was achieved with each of these transmitters. Thermoacoustic transmitters enable a step towards one-sided air-coupled ultrasonic inspection.
Air‑coupled ferroelectret ultrasonic transducers for nondestructive testing of wood‑based materials
(2018)
Air-coupled ultrasound (ACU) is used in through transmission to detect delamination, rot, and cracks in wood without altering the structure permanently. Novel ferroelectret transducers with a high signal-to-noise ratio enable high-precision structure recognition. Transducers made of cellular polypropylene are quite suitable for ACU testing due to their extremely low Young’s modulus and low density resulting in a favorable acoustic impedance for the transmission of ultrasonic waves between the transducer and air. Thus, structures with great dimensions, with a thickness of up to 300 mm and material densities below 500 kg/m3, can be inspected. Promising results were obtained under laboratory conditions with frequencies ranging from 90 to 200 kHz. The advantage of ACU transducers is that they do not equire contact to the sample; they are accurate and cost-effective. Ultrasonic quality assurance for wood is an important avenue to increase the acceptance of wooden structures and toward sustainability in civil engineering in general.
Die physikalische Komplexität der Gasentladungen führt zu vielen Möglichkeiten für die Interaktion der Entladung mit ihrer Umgebung. Zu den typischen Anwendungen zählen Modifikationen der Materialoberflächen und Erzeugung von Ionen für Massenspektroskopie. Atmosphärendruckplasma generiert eine große Menge thermischer Energie wegen der Kollisionen in der Plasmarandschicht. Eine rasche Temperaturänderung kann in dem umgebenden Gas eine akustische Welle erzeugen, wie beim Blitz und Donner, was als thermoakustischer Effekt bekannt ist. Außerdem kann auch die Bewegung der Ladungsträger im elektrischen Feld, bekannt als ionischer Wind, eine akustische Welle erzeugen.
In diesem Beitrag werden Versuche mit akustischer Emission von Plasma bei dielektrischer Oberflächenentladung und bei Mikrohohlkathoden dargestellt. Es werden auch mögliche Anwendungen für Plasmadiagnostik, sowie für den Bau von Schallwandlern für den Hör- und Ultraschallbereich präsentiert. Verglichen mit anderen Methoden der Schallerzeugung, hat die thermoakustische Anregung den Vorteil, dass sie auch ohne eine schwingende Masse auskommt, womit eine große Bandbreite erreicht wird, sowie den Vorteil einer guten Anpassung der akustischen Impedanz.
Seit Jahren stellt die luftgekoppelte Ultraschallprüfung eine etablierte Alternative zur konventionellen Prüfung von Leichtbaukomponenten aus den Bereichen Luft- und Raumfahrt sowie Automotive dar. Im Gegenteil zur flüssigkeitsgekoppelten Prüfung in Kontakt oder im Tauchbecken ist sie weniger invasiv und bietet daher zeitliche und finanzielle Anreize.
Normalerweise wird die luftgekoppelte Prüfung mit Einzelelementschwingern in Durchschallung realisiert, wohingegen die Gruppenstrahlertechnik bereits Industriestandard im Bereich der Kontakttechnik darstellt. Die damit verbundenen Vorteile wie die aktive Fokussierung oder, die gezielte Manipulation des Einschallwinkels zur Anregung von geführten Wellen, finden im Bereich der luftgekoppelten Prüfung dabei noch wenig Anwendung.
Im Rahmen dieses Beitrags stellen wir die ersten Zwischenergebnisse des geförderten Projektes „PALUP – Phased- Array-Technik für Luftultraschall-Prüfungen“ vor. Ziel des Projektes ist die Entwicklung von Mehrelementschwingern auf Basis von zellulären Kunststoffen, die Entwicklung einer dedizierten Pulserstufe im Kilovoltbereich, sowie die nötige rauscharme messtechnische Auswertung jedes Einzelelements.
Seit Jahren stellt die luftgekoppelte Ultraschallprüfung eine etablierte Alternative zur konventionellen Prüfung von Leichtbaukomponenten aus den Bereichen Luft- und Raumfahrt sowie Automotive dar. Im Gegenteil zur flüssigkeitsgekoppelten Prüfung in Kontakt oder im Tauchbecken ist sie weniger invasiv und bietet daher zeitliche und finanzielle Anreize.
Normalerweise wird die luftgekoppelte Prüfung mit Einzelelementschwingern in Durchschallung realisiert, wohingegen die Gruppenstrahlertechnik bereits Industriestandard im Bereich der Kontakttechnik darstellt. Die damit verbundenen Vorteile wie die aktive Fokussierung oder, die gezielte Manipulation des Einschallwinkels zur Anregung von geführten Wellen, finden im Bereich der luftgekoppelten Prüfung dabei noch wenig Anwendung.
Im Rahmen dieses Beitrags stellen wir die ersten Zwischenergebnisse des geförderten Projektes „PALUP – Phased- Array-Technik für Luftultraschall-Prüfungen“ vor. Ziel des Projektes ist die Entwicklung von Mehrelementschwingern auf Basis von zellulären Kunststoffen, die Entwicklung einer dedizierten Pulserstufe im Kilovoltbereich, sowie die nötige rauscharme messtechnische Auswertung jedes Einzelelements.
Ferroelektrete sind zelluläre polarisierte Polymere, die ferroelektrische und dadurch auch piezoelektrische Eigenschaften aufweisen. Unter anderem werden sie für den Bau von Mikrofonen und Ultraschallwandlern für Materialprüfung eingesetzt. Dabei erweist sich ihre besonders niedrige akustische Impedanz als Vorteil. Ursache dafür ist vor allem ihr außergewöhnlich niedriger Elastizitätsmodul in Dickenrichtung. In diesem Beitrag werden zwei Methoden für die Ermittlung des Elastizitätsmoduls des geladenen zellulären Polypropylens (zPP) dargestellt. Die erste ist eine neuartige modellgestützte Methode mittels Laservibrometrie an dem eigenentwickelten Polypropylen-Wandler, wobei die Resonanzschwingung des Wandlers bei 250 kHz gemessen wird.
Die zweite Methode ist dynamisch-mechanische Analyse (DMA) durchgeführt mit Frequenzen von 0,3 bis 50 Hz, erstmalig für das zPP angewendet.
Air-coupled ultrasound sensors have advantages over contact ultrasound sensors when a sample should not become contaminated or influenced by the couplant or the measurement has to be a fast and automated inline process. Thereby, air-coupled transducers must emit high-energy pulses due to the low air-to-solid power transmission ratios (10−3 to 10−8). Currently used resonant transducers trade bandwidth—a prerequisite for material parameter analysis—against pulse energy. Here we show that a combination of a non-resonant ultrasound emitter and a non-resonant detector enables the generation and detection of pulses that are both high in amplitude (130 dB) and bandwidth (2 µs pulse width). We further show an initial application: the detection of reflections inside of a carbon fiber reinforced plastic plate with thicknesses between 1.7 mm and 10 mm. As the sensors work contact-free, the time of flight and the period of the in-plate reflections are independent parameters. Hence, a variation of ultrasound velocity is distinguishable from a variation of plate thickness and both properties are determined simultaneously. The sensor combination is likely to find numerous industrial applications necessitating high automation capacity and opens possibilities for air-coupled, single-side ultrasonic inspection.
Applications of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) composites in modern industries are increasing due to their considerable advantages such as light weight and excellent mechanical properties. Accordingly, importance of operational safety of modern structures made of advanced composites by ensuring the material quality has led to increasing demands for development of non-destructive evaluation (NDE) systems. In the context of a European project entitled “Validated Inspection Techniques for Composites in Energy Applications” (VITCEA), the aim is to develop and validate traceable procedures for novel NDE techniques with contrasting damage detection capabilities in energy related applications such as wind and marine turbine blades, nacelles, oil and gas flexible risers. Accordingly, VITCEA focuses on optimization of ultrasonic tests (UTs) for quantitative defect detection and quality characterization of FRP structures. In this context, the present study describes the ultrasound field in heterogeneous composite materials. The theoretical predictions are compared with simulation results obtained from CIVA a software package dedicated to NDT simulations based on the asymptotic ray theory.
Charakterisierung der Wandler für Luftultraschallprüfung aus zellulärem Polypropylen-Ferroelektret
(2011)
In den letzten Jahren stieg die Anfrage für zerstörungsfreie Prüfung (ZIP) mit Luftultraschall deutlich. Die klassische ZfP mit Ultraschall nutzt Flüssigkeiten als Koppelmittel zwischen dem Wandler und dem Prüfkörper. Für die Prüfung von Gegenständen mit empfindlicher Oberfläche, die das Koppelmittel beschädigen oder verunreinigen kann, ist deswegen Luftultraschall besser geeignet. Eine mögliche Anwendung ist beispielsweise der Nachweis von Delaminationen in glas- und kohlefaserverstärkten Verbundwerkstoffen sowie Sandwichbauteilen, die in der Luftfahrt- und der Automobilindustrie eingesetzt werden.
Charakterisierung der Wandler für Luftultraschallprüfung aus zellulärem Polypropylen-Ferroelektret
(2011)
Der Umfang der durch Impacts in Faserverbundmaterialien erzeugten Schäden ist abhängig von der Energie des Impacts, von der Zusammensetzung und dem Aufbau der Faserverbundwerkstoffe und von der Geometrie der Bauteile und hier im Wesentlichen von der Dicke des Bauteils. Der zerstörungsfreie Nachweis dieser Schädigungen kann sowohl mit Ultraschallverfahren als auch mit Verfahren der aktiven Thermografie erfolgen. Ein Vergleich der Nachweisempfindlichkeiten dieser Verfahren für die unterschiedlichen Schädigungen wird in diesem Beitrag in Abhängigkeit vom verwendeten Faserverbundwerkstoff (CFK und GFK), der Dicke des Materials und von der Impactenergie durchgeführt. Ergänzt werden die im Anschluss an die Schädigung eingesetzten ZfP-Verfahren mit zeitlich hochaufgelösten Thermografiemessungen, die bereits während des Impacts aufgenommen wurden.
Mit dem steigenden Einsatz der luftgekoppelten Ultraschallprüfung steigt auch der Bedarf an verlässlichen Methoden der Charakterisierung der eingesetzten Technik. Mehrere unterschiedliche Verfahren zur Charakterisierung von luftgekoppelten Wandlern und der entsprechenden Gerätetechnik werden verwendet. Prüfkopf-Datenblätter verschiedener Hersteller beinhalten unterschiedliche Prüfkopfparameter, wobei oft eigene Verfahren für die Charakterisierung dieser Prüfköpfe verwendet werden. Diese Vielfalt der Parameter und Verfahren erschwert den potenziellen Kunden den Vergleich zwischen den Prüfköpfen unterschiedlicher Hersteller. Daraus ergibt sich der Bedarf, die Verfahren zur Charakterisierung von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern zu standardisieren.
Vorrangig diese Überlegungen bewegten Hersteller von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern, Forschungseinrichtungen und Anwender sich zu vernetzen und im Rahmen des Fachausschusses „Ultraschall“ den Unterausschuss „Luftgekoppelte Ultraschallprüfung“ zu gründen. Als erstes Ziel hat sich der Unterausschuss die Erarbeitung einer Richtlinie zur Charakterisierung von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern gesetzt.
Dieser Beitrag ist ein Überblick über viele Methoden zur Charakterisierung von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern, mit dem Schwerpunkt auf der akustischen Charakterisierung. Zu den wichtigsten Wandlerparametern gehören Empfindlichkeit, Mittenfrequenz, Bandbreite, Fokusgröße und Fokusabstand. Verschiedene Methoden der Schallfeldvermessung werden untereinander verglichen. Diese Überlegungen bieten den Ausgangspunkt für spätere Arbeit an einer Richtlinie zur Charakterisierung von luftgekoppelten Ultraschallwandlern.
The detection of delamination, rot and cracks causing a decrease of strength in wooden construction elements is a key task for nondestructive testing (NDT). Air-coupled ultrasound (ACU) is used to detect flaws without having to provide contact to the surface or otherwise affect the object. Novel ferroelectric transducers with a high signal-to-noise ratio enable an accurate flaw detection. Transducers made of cellular polypropylene (PP) are suitable for characterizing wood-based materials (WBM) because their extremely low Young’s modulus and low density mean a favorable acoustic impedance for the transmission of ultrasonic waves between the transducer and air. The transducers can be applied during the production of WBM and during its service life. The device enables a fast in-situ recognition of defects with frequencies between 90 kHz and 250 kHz. Measurements can be performed in through transmission for a high resolution or in pulse-echo technique in case of one-sided access at the expense of reduced signal strength. Ultrasonic quality assurance for wood is an important attempt to increase the acceptance of wooden structures and towards sustainability in civil engineering in general.
The detection of defects in aircraft components or parts of a power plant or mines in the ground is connected with the task to distinguish between signals caused be the item searched for and noisy signals from other sources. The reliability of the system is the better the better the system is in detecting the wanted signal and avoiding false alarms caused by noise. It is usual to measure the reliability of diagnostic systems in terms of ROC-curves (Re-ceiver Operating Characteristics) and POD-curves (Probability of Detec-tion). The ROC curves describe the POD versus Probability of False Alarm with growing system sensitivity along the curve. POD curves describe the Probability of Detection for a fixed sensitivity for a variation of item sizes or depths. Reliability of the whole system is always a composition of the physics
and technique, application influences and the human factors. For the scien-tific understanding and possibilities of improvement, decomposition accord-ing to a modular model is helpful. The authors present their experiences with the reliability evaluation of metal detectors for humanitarian demining and an NDT system of mechanized ultrasonic phased array testing of copper welds. The special concern in demining is the influence of soil types, detec-tors and the experiences of human beings.
Die übergeordnete Zielsetzung unserer Untersuchung bestand darin,
am Beispiel von Prüfungen mit Ultraschall eine belastbare Aussage zum Einfluss der Arbeitsbedingungen des Prüfers auf die Qualität der Ergebnisse von zerstörungsfreien Prüfungen zu ermitteln und Möglichkeiten zur Minimierung ungünstiger Einflussfaktoren aufzuzeigen.
Der Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung wurde auf die manuelle Ultraschallprüfung gelegt und der Faktor 'Zeitdruck' (in drei Stufen variiert) als die zu variierende physische Einflussgröße gewählt. Die Variation des Faktors Zeitdruck wurde gemäß dem Prozessmodell von der Erhebung psychologischer Faktoren, die das Individuum und die Organisation beschreiben, begleitet.
Die Ultraschallprüfungen erfolgten mit zehn Prüfern am Großbehälter und an Vergleichskörpern mit eingebrachten Testfehlern (Nuten, Risse). Die ausgewählten Fehler waren typisch für Prüfaufgaben, die bei wiederkehrenden Ultraschallprüfungen in Kernkraftwerken von den Prüfern zu lösen sind. Die Prüfaufgabe bestand darin, die in den vorgegebenen Prüfabschnitten vorhandenen Reflektoren aufzufinden und deren Amplituden, Ortskoordinaten und Längenerstreckungen zu ermitteln. Als Bewertungsmaßstab für die Qualität der Prüfaussage und für den Einfluss des menschlichen Faktors diente die Präzision der gemessenen Werte. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen hohen Einfluss des menschlichen Faktors auf das Prüfergebnis und eine Einwirkung des Zeitdrucks besonders auf die Präzision der Messwerte. Hierbei war die Wirkung des individuell wahrgenommenen Zeitdrucks zusammen mit der psychischen Arbeitsbeanspruchung signifikant. Es wurde unter anderem herausgearbeitet, dass durch eine gute Vorbereitung auf die Prüfung, z.B. durch die sorgfältige Einweisung und ein vorgeschaltetes Fertigkeitstraining an Vergleichskörpern, die Zuverlässigkeit der Prüfergebnisse verbessert werden kann.
Insgesamt hatte der Faktor 'Organisation' neben der 'Erfahrung' einen hohen Einfluss auf das Leistungsvermögen der Prüfer.
Die Projektergebnisse wurden im Abschlussbericht des Forschungsvorhabens SR2514 dargestellt, es wurden drei Empfehlungen zur Vorbereitung und Einweisung der Prüfer, zur Stärkung der Verantwortung der Prüfaufsicht und zum 4-Augen-Prinzip formuliert. Die Empfehlungen wurden in der KTA- Regel 3201.4 'Komponenten des Primärkreises von Leichtwasserreaktoren; Teil 4: Wiederkehrende Prüfungen und Betriebsüberwachung (RÄE Fassung 2010-11)', umgesetzt.
Durch den Einsatz von faserverstärkten Kunststoffen und Multi-Material-Konstruktionen zur Gewichtsreduzierung erlangen Klebeverbindungen immer stärkere Bedeutung. Die Prüfung dieser Fügeverbindungen stellt neue Anforderungen an die zerstörungsfreie Prüfung. Hinzu kommt, dass die Zugänglichkeit häufig eingeschränkt und die Verwendung flüssiger Koppelmittel aufgrund konstruktiver oder fertigungstechnischer Gegebenheiten ausgeschlossen ist. Unter Berücksichtigung dieser Beschränkungen wurde ein Prüfverfahren entwickelt, das eine luftgekoppelte Anregung geführter Ultraschallwellen mit einer laserbasierten Detektion kombiniert. Nachdem das Prüfverfahren zunächst mit einer einfachen Signalauswertung im Zeitbereich getestet wurde, konnte in nachfolgenden Untersuchungen die örtliche Auflösung durch die Implementierung von Filteralgorithmen im Frequenz-Wellenzahl-Bereich und zusätzlich durch direktionale Filter erhöht werden. Das resultierende bildgebende Prüfverfahren wurde an realitätsnahen Klebeproben mit künstlichen Fehlern getestet. Die Zuverlässigkeit und Ortsauflösung des Verfahrens wurde im Vergleich mit herkömmlichen Prüfverfahren validiert. Mithilfe des Verfahrens können Poren, Einschlüsse und Bereiche mit ungenügender Verklebung detektiert werden.
Polypropylene based ferroelectret films exhibit a strong electromechanical activity and provide a promising solution for the air coupled ultrasonic (ACUS) transducers. Ultrasonic transmission between two air coupled ferroelectret transducers in dependence on the amplitude and polarity of the high voltage exciting pulse revealed a strongly non-linear electromechanical response of the ferroelectret transmitter which provides an increase in the transmitter efficiency. The authors present a simple model describing both promotion and competition of the piezoelectric and electrostriction contributions, as well as increase in the transducer constant under high voltage excitation. Enlargement of the inverse transducer constant of the polypropylene ferroelectret film by a factor of 4 was demonstrated. The non-linear properties of the polypropylene ferroelectrets result in a strong increase in their ACUS figure of merit under the high voltage excitation, which exceeds the results of their technological optimisation. Consequently, enhancement of the ACUS system transmission by 12 dB and signal to noise ratio by 32 dB was achieved.