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- Tribofilm (4)
- Movable cellular automata (3)
- Sliding simulation (3)
- Third body (3)
- Automotive braking (2)
- Friction (2)
- MCA-modeling (2)
- Mechanically mixed layer (2)
- Amorphous silica (1)
- Bremse (1)
Organisationseinheit der BAM
In the mechanical friction and wear process, normal and tangential (shear) forces cause elastic and plastic deformations, generate cracks and form loose wear particles through fracture processes. Depending on the working conditions, the material properties and the real contact Situation (topography), a third body is formed as a mechanical ly mixed layer, which determines different running-in and steady-state behaviours.
Two dimensional (2D) MCA Simulation results will be described via empirical equations, which are related to the incubation time (period without wear) and the following running-in wear rate (kinetic concept of strength, fatigue wear model).
In order to understand the running-in and steady-state wear, kinetic model equations for mass balance of the third body are useful and are therefore to be included in the investigation.
For a more complex material behaviour, numerical Simulation results are also presented for friction at the pad-disk interface of automotive brakes.
The impact of pressure, sliding velocity and property variation of constituents on the sliding behaviour of a model tribofilm was studied with the method of movable cellular automata (MCA). Whereas a clear pressure dependency of the coefficient of friction (COF) was always observed and could be correlated with the structure formation in terms of varying thickness of a mechanically mixed layer, the impact of the other parameters was either negligible or rather weak. Only if a brittle-to-ductile Transition of the oxide-based tribofilm was assumed, a significant decrease in the COF level was predicted.
Temperature-dependent property changes can be neglected during MCA modelling, unless this transition takes place. For magnetite-based tribofilms, the transition temperature is beyond 800 °C, i.e. a temperature leading to fading effects during braking anyway. Thus, it could be concluded that, except for very severe braking conditions, sliding simulations with the MCA method yield meaningful results without considering temperature-dependent mechanical properties.
The sliding behavior of an amorphous silica sample between two rigid surfaces is in the focus of the present paper. Molecular Dynamics using a classical Tersoff’s potential and a recently developed ReaxFF potential was applied for simulating sliding within a thin film corresponding to a tribofilm formed from silica nanoparticles. The simulations were performed at different temperatures corresponding to moderate and severe tribological stressing conditions. Simulations with both potentials revealed the need of considering different temperatures in order to obtain a sound interpretation of experimental findings. The results show the striking differences between the two potentials not only in terms of magnitude of the resistance stress (about one order of magnitude) but also in terms of friction mechanisms. The expected smooth sliding regime under high temperature conditions was predicted by both simulations, although with Tersoff’s potential smooth sliding was obtained only at the highest temperature. On the other hand, at room temperature Tersoff-style calculations demonstrate stick-slip behavior, which corresponds qualitatively with our experimental findings. Nevertheless, comparison with a macroscopic coefficient of friction is not possible because simulated resistance stresses do not depend on the applied normal pressure.
Copper is one of the most important components in brake pads and its amount can reach up to 14%. In spite of a number of positive features copper usage in brake pad formulations has recently become the subject of considerable discussions, primarily due to concerns about potential risks related to environmental impacts of copper particles. So, for developing new pad formulations with possible replacements of copper content, it is very important to understand the functionality of copper additions to brake friction materials. In the paper theoretical investigation of the role of copper as a pad ingredient was carried out on the basis of modelling by the method of movable cellular automata (MCA). Our previous studies show that copper as a constituent of the tribofilm formed during braking provides smooth sliding by forming a granular layer of mechanically mixed materials from the friction layers. In the present study the concentration of copper particles in a Fe3O4-matrix was varied systematically in the range 5.5-28 vol. % and compared to mixtures with the same amount of graphite nanoparticles. The sliding simulations were performed while assuming material properties at 500°C in order to assess the beneficial role of copper during severe braking conditions corresponding to fading cycles during dynamometer testing.
This review article comprises of three parts. Firstly, reports of brake manufacturers on the beneficial impact of solid lubricants for pad formulations are surveyed. Secondly, since tribofilms were identified to play a crucial role in friction stabilization and wear reduction, the knowledge about tribofilm structures formed during automotive braking was reviewed comprehensively. Finally, a model for simulating the sliding behavior of tribofilms is suggested and a review on modelling efforts with different model structures related to real tribofilms will be presented. Although the variety of friction composites involved in commercial brake systems is very broad, striking similarities were observed in respect to tribofilm nanostructures. Thus a generalization of the tribofilm nanostructure is suggested and prerequisites for smooth sliding performance and minimal wear rates have been identified. A minimum of 13 vol.% of soft inclusions embedded in an iron oxide based tribofilm is crucial for obtaining the desired properties. As long as the solid lubricants or their reaction products are softer than magnetite, the main constituent of the tribofilm, the model predicts smooth sliding and a minimum of wear.