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In non-destructive testing and structural health monitoring with ultrasonic waves, the quantification of damage in components is one of the main tasks. In many shell-like structures, such as plates, pipes, or laminate components, ultrasonic waves propagate as guided waves. Although guided waves enable the testing of large areas, their multimodal and dispersive properties make it challenging to analyze signals. So, there is a need for more advanced algorithms to handle these properties, especially when reconstructing damage position and geometry.
The reconstruction can be formulated as an inverse problem where the measured signals are fitted with a simulative forward model. Due to the small wavelength of ultrasonic waves, classic forward models based on, e.g., the Finite Element Method are computationally intensive. In contrast, the authors use the semi-analytical Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method (SBFEM) to reduce the computational effort. The SBFEM approximates arbitrary long, undamaged parts of the structure with only a few degrees of freedom.
This contribution summarizes a general inverse procedure based on algorithmic differentiation in combination with the SBFEM. Results are presented for damaged 2D cross-sectional models of waveguides. These results include an analysis of the robustness of the proposed algorithms against noise.
This paper considers an indirect measurement approach to reconstruct a defect in a two-dimensional waveguide model for a non-destructive ultrasonic inspection via derivative-based optimization. The propagation of the mechanical waves is simulated by the scaled boundary finite element method that builds on a semi-analytical approach. The simulated data are then fitted to given data associated with the reflected waves from a defect which is to be reconstructed. For this purpose, we apply an iteratively regularized Gauss-Newton method in combination with algorithmic differentiation to provide the required derivative information accurately and efficiently. We present numerical results for three kinds of defects, namely, a crack, delamination, and corrosion. The objective function and the properties of the reconstruction method are investigated. The examples show that the parameterization of the defect can be reconstructed efficiently as well as robustly in the presence of noise.
Ein Hauptziel der zerstörungsfreien Prüfung und der Strukturüberwachung (engl. Structural Health Monitoring - SHM) mit Ultraschallwellen ist die Charakterisierung von Schäden in Bauteilen. In vielen schalenförmigen Bauteilen, wie zum Beispiel Rohrleitungen, Laminaten und Platten, breitet sich der Ultraschall in Form geführter Wellen aus. Zwar erlauben geführte Wellen eine großflächige Prüfung durch das langsame Abklingen der Wellen. Jedoch breiten sich die Wellen in verschiedenen dispersiven Moden aus, was die Analyse der vom Schaden erzeugten Reflexionen erschwert. Eine Möglichkeit, die Messsignale zu interpretieren, um Schäden zu charakterisieren, ist der direkte Vergleich mit einem Simulationsmodell. Die Rekonstruktion des Schadens stellt ein inverses Problem dar. Das inverse Problem kann als Optimierungsproblem formuliert werden. Für die Optimierung werden mehrere Vorwärtsrechnungen gebraucht, um das Schadensmodell an die Messdaten anzupassen.
Aufgrund der kurzen Wellenlängen von Ultraschallwellen sind klassische Methoden für die Vorwärtsrechnung, wie z.B. die Finite Elemente Methode (FEM), rechenintensiv. Eine Möglichkeit den Rechenaufwand zu reduzieren, bietet die Approximation der Wellenausbreitung mittels der semi-analytischen Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method (SBFEM). Frühere Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, dass die benötigten Freiheitsgrade im Vergleich zur FEM wesentlich geringer sind [1].
Im Beitrag wird eine Optimierung basierend auf einem Gradientenverfahren in Kombination mit der SBFEM vorgestellt und an verschiedenen Schadenstypen in 2D-Querschnittsmodellen von Stahlplatten getestet. Der Gradient des Vorwärtsmodells wird durch Algorithmisches Differenzieren berechnet, wodurch eine genaue und schnelle Optimierung ermöglicht wird. Es werden Untersuchungen zum inversen Problem und das Finden einer geeigneten Zielfunktion präsentiert. Es wird verdeutlicht, dass der entwickelte Algorithmus robust gegenüber von Rauscheinflüssen ist. In diesen Untersuchungen werden zunächst „Messdaten“ aus unabhängigen Simulationen verwendet [2]. Erste Schritte für die experimentelle Validierung und Erweiterung auf 3D Modelle werden anschließend vorgestellt.
Data-driven analysis for damage assessment has a large potential in structural health monitoring (SHM) systems, where sensors are permanently attached to the structure, enabling continuous and frequent measurements. In this contribution, we propose a machine learning (ML) approach for automated damage detection, based on an ML toolbox for industrial condition monitoring. The toolbox combines multiple complementary algorithms for feature extraction and selection and automatically chooses the best combination of methods for the dataset at hand. Here, this toolbox is applied to a guided wave-based SHM dataset for varying temperatures and damage locations, which is freely available on the Open Guided Waves platform. A classification rate of 96.2% is achieved, demonstrating reliable and automated damage detection. Moreover, the ability of the ML model to identify a damaged structure at untrained damage locations and temperatures is demonstrated.
The fourth dataset dedicated to the Open Guided Waves platform presented in this work aims at a carbon fiber composite plate with an additional omega stringer at constant temperature conditions. The dataset provides full ultrasonic guided wavefields.
A chirp signal in the frequency range 20-500 kHz and Hann windowed tone-burst signal with 5 cycles and carrier frequencies of 16.5 kHz, 50 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz and 300kHz are used to excite the wave. The piezoceramic actuator used for this purpose is attached to the center of the stringer side surface of the core plate.
Three scenarios are provided with this setup: (1) wavefield measurements without damage, (2) wavefield measurements with a local stringer debond and (3) wavefield measurements with a large stringer debond. The defects were caused by impacts performed from the backside of the plate. As result, the stringer feet debonds locally which was verified with conventional ultrasound measurements.
The dataset can be used for benchmarking purposes of various signal processing methods for damage imaging.
The detailed description of the dataset is published in Data in Brief Journal.
The fourth dataset dedicated to the Open Guided Waves platform presented in this work aims at a carbon fiber composite plate with an additional omega stringer at constant temperature conditions. The dataset provides full ultrasonic guided wavefields. Two types of signals were used for guided wave excitation, namely chirp signal and tone-burst signal. The chirp signal had a frequency range of 20-500kHz. The tone-burst signals had a form of sine modulated by Hann window with 5 cycles and carrier frequencies 16.5kHz, 50kHz, 100kHz, 200kHz, 300kHz. The piezoceramic actuator used for this purpose was attached to the center of the stringer side surface of the core plate. Three scenarios are provided with this setup: (1) wavefield measurements without damage, (2) wavefield measurements with a local stringer debond and (3) wavefield measurements with a large stringer debond. The defects were caused by impacts performed from the backside of the plate. As result, the stringer feet debonds locally which was verified with conventional ultrasound measurements.
Detailliertes Wissen über die mechanischen Eigenschaften verwendeter Materialien ist Grundvoraussetzung für viele ingenieurtechnische Aufgaben und Dienstleistungen. Zur Bestimmung der elastischen Materialparameter gibt es verschiedene klassische, zerstörende Prüfverfahren. Eine Möglichkeit der zerstörungsfreien Bestimmung liegt in der Auswertung von Messergebnissen, die auf Basis des Ausbreitungsverhaltens geführter Ultraschallwellen gewonnen wurden. Das Ausbreitungsverhalten geführter Ultraschallwellen kann mittels Dispersionsabbildungen dargestellt werden.
Um aus messtechnisch ermittelten Dispersionsabbildungen Rückschlüsse auf die Materialparameter zu ziehen, werden in der aktuellen Forschung verschiedene inverse Methoden diskutiert. Maschinelles Lernen und insbesondere Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) stellen eine Möglichkeit der automatisierten inversen Modellierung und Evaluierung von Bilddaten dar.
In diesem Beitrag wird gezeigt, wie das Ausbreitungsverhalten von geführten Ultraschallwellen unter Verwendung von CNNs genutzt werden kann, um die isotropen elastischen Konstanten einer plattenförmigen Struktur zu bestimmen. Hierfür werden die verwendeten Daten analysiert, das Preprocessing erläutert und eine grundlegende CNN-Architektur gewählt. Zur Auswertung des generierten Modells werden verschiedene Verfahren wie Gradienten-Mapping und die Visualisierung der verschiedenen Schichten vorgestellt. Die Anwendbarkeit der Methode wird anhand synthetischer Daten demonstriert.
The simulation of ultrasonic waves in a linearly elastic body can be computationally intensive. The reason is the relatively short wavelength compared to the body size for high frequencies. One possible approach to counteract the high computational costs is to decompose the domain into small parts and strive for parallelization. The Mortar Method is a well-established approach for domain decomposition.
A rather new approach to discretize the emerging subdomains is the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method. This semi-analytical method has many attractive properties. Some of these properties are listed subsequently. The grid consists of polygonal elements, which leaves much freedom in the meshing process. A variety of material distributions, including anisotropic materials, can be considered. High-order shape functions can be used for optimal convergence properties. The approach treats singularities at crack tips and corners analytically. Especially in the frequency domain, the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method reduces the dimension of the approximation because only degrees of freedom which are associated with the boundary of a polygonal element are necessary. Those desirable properties make the method particularly suitable for calculating the dynamic responses in bodies with cracks, as it is essential for many non-destructive testing and structural health monitoring applications.
In this contribution, we present a combination of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method with the Mortar Method in two dimensions. The presentation starts with a theoretical overview of both approaches. Subsequently, numerical examples demonstrate the stability of the combination for the polygonal boundary of the elements. The numerical examples increase in complexity and are compared to results computed on non-divided domains with the Finite Element Method.
Composite-overwrapped pressure vessels (COPV) are increasingly used in the transportation industry due to their high strength to mass ratio. Throughout the years, various designs were developed and found their applications. Currently, there are five designs, which can be subdivided into two main categories - with a load-sharing metal liner and with a non-load-sharing plastic liner. The main damage mechanism defining the lifetime of the first type is fatigue of the metal liner, whereas for the second type it is fatigue of the composite overwrap. Nevertheless, one damage type which may drastically reduce the lifetime of COPV is impact-induced damage. Therefore, this barely visible damage needs to be assessed in a non-destructive way to decide whether the pressure vessel can be further used or has to be put out of service. One of the possible methods is based on ultrasonic waves. In this contribution, both conventional ultrasonic testing (UT) by high-frequency bulk waves and wavenumber mapping by low frequency guided waves are used to evaluate impact damage. Wavenumber mapping techniques are first benchmarked on a simulated aluminium panel then applied to experimental measurements acquired on a delaminated aluminium-CFRP composite plate which corresponds to a structure of COPV with a load-sharing metal liner. The analysis of experimental data obtained from measurements of guided waves propagating in an aluminium-CFRP composite plate with impact-induced damage is performed. All approaches show similar performance in terms of quantification of damage size and depths while being applied to numerical data. The approaches used on the experimental data deliver an accurate estimate of the in-plane size of the large delamination at the aluminium-CFRP interface but only a rough estimate of its depth. Moreover, none of the wavenumber mapping techniques used in the study can quantify every delamination between CFRP plies caused by the impact, which is the case for conventional UT. This may be solved by using higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) or more advanced signal processing techniques. All in all, it can be concluded that imaging of complex impact damage in fibre-reinforced composites based on wavenumber mapping is not straightforward and stays a challenging task.