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Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are a universal phenomenon and can be generated on almost any material by irradiation with linearly polarized radiation. This chapter reviews the current state in the field of LIPSS, which are formed in a “self-ordered” way and are often accompanying materials processing applications. LIPSS can be produced in a single-stage process and enable surface nanostructuring and, in turn, adaption of optical, mechanical, and chemical surface properties. Typically, they feature a structural size ranging from several micrometers down to less than 100 nm and show a clear correlation with the polarization direction of the light used for their generation. Various types of LIPSS are classified, relevant control parameters are identified, and their material-specific formation mechanisms are analyzed for different types of inorganic solids, i.e., metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. Finally, technological applications featuring surface functionalization in the fields of optics, fluidics, medicine, and tribology are discussed.
The role of electromagnetic scattering in the formation of laser-induced periodic surface structures
(2021)
Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are a universal phenomenon that is accompanying laser materials processing. These surface nanostructures pave a simple way for surface functionalization with numerous applications in optics, fluidics, tribology, medicine, etc. During the last decade remarkable experimental and theoretical improvements in understanding of their formation mechanisms were obtained - all pointing toward polarization-dependent energy deposition by absorption of optical radiation that is scattered at the surface roughness and interfering with the laser beam. This contribution reviews the current state-of-the-art on the role of electromagnetic scattering in the formation of LIPSS by ultrashort laser pulses. Special attention is drawn to recent finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) calculations that allow to visualize the radiation patterns formed in the vicinity of the sample surface and to the impact of a thin superficial laser-induced oxidation layer.
The presentation reviews the BAM activities in the field of surface processing by ultrashort laser pulses. A focus is laid on the generation of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) which allow various surface functionalizations for applications in optics, tribology, liquid management, and medicine.
Time-resolved phase-contrast microscopy is employed to visualize spatio-temporal thermal transients induced by tight focusing of a single Ti:sapphire fs-laser pulse into a solid dielectric sample. This method relies on the coupling of the refractive index change and the sample temperature through the thermo-optic coefficient dn/dT. The thermal transients are studied on a timescale ranging from 10 ns up to 0.1 ms after laser excitation. Beyond providing direct insights into the laser–matter interaction, analyzing the results obtained also enables quantifying the local thermal diffusivity of the sample on a micrometer scale. Studies conducted in different solid dielectrics, namely amorphous fused silica (a-SiO2), a commercial borosilicate glass (BO33, Schott), and a custom alkaline earth silicate glass (NaSi66), illustrate the applicability of this approach to the investigation of various glassy materials.
During the past few years significantly increasing research activities in the field of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS, ripples) have been reported since the generation of LIPSS in a single-step process provides a simple way of surface nanostructuring towards a control of optical, mechanical or chemical surface properties. In this contribution the current research state in this field is reviewed. The formation of LIPSS upon irradiation of metals, semiconductors and dielectrics by multiple linearly polarized Ti:sapphire fs-laser pulses (30-150 fs) is studied experimentally and theoretically. Different types of LIPSS with periods even below 100 nm can be generated. Their dynamics and formation mechanisms are analyzed and identified in ultrafast optical experiments. Complementing theoretical calculations of the laser-induced carrier dynamics address transient changes of the optical properties of the irradiated materials and reveal the importance of surface plasmon polaritons in the early stage of LIPSS formation. Various applications of these nanostructures are outlined.
A laser-based bottom-up technique for the fabrication of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGSe) micro solar cells is presented.
We use femtosecond laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) to transport a metallic precursor composed of copper, indium, and gallium onto a molybdenum back contact layer on a glass substrate. A CIGSe absorber forms by subsequent selenization. An array of micro absorbers with defined spacing is fabricated to solar cells and characterized under concentrated light illumination. The solar cell array exhibited a conversion efficiency of 1.4‰ at 1 sun as well as a significant efficiency enhancement of 68% rel. under 20-fold concentration. This work demonstrates the possibility of directly grown micrometer-sized solar cells based on chalcogenide absorber layers, enabling effective material usage.
In laser machining with ultrashort laser pulses unwanted X-ray radiation in the keV range can be generated when a critical laser intensity is exceeded. Even if the emitted X-ray dose per pulse is low, high laser repetition rates can lead to an accumulation of X-ray doses beyond exposure safety limits. For 925 fs pulse duration at a center wavelength of 1030 nm, the X-ray emission was investigated up to an intensity of 2.6 × 10^14 W/cm2. The experiments were performed in air with a thin disk laser at a repetition rate of 400 kHz. X-ray spectra and doses were measured for various planar target materials covering a wide range of the periodic table from aluminum to tungsten. Without radiation shielding, the measured radiation doses at this high repetition rate clearly exceed the regulatory limits. Estimations for an adequate radiation shielding are provided.
Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are a universal phenomenon and can be generated on almost any material by irradiation with linearly polarized radiation. This chapter reviews the current state in the field of LIPSS, which are formed in a “self-ordered” way and are often accompanying materials processing applications. LIPSS can be produced in a single-stage process and enable surface nanostructuring and, in turn, adaption of optical, mechanical, and chemical surface properties. Typically, they feature a structural size ranging from several micrometers down to less than 100 nm and show a clear correlation with the polarization direction of the light used for their generation. Various types of LIPSS are classified, relevant control parameters are identified, and their material-specific formation mechanisms are analyzed for different types of inorganic solids, i.e., metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. Finally, technological applications featuring surface functionalization in the fields of optics, fluidics, medicine, and tribology are discussed.
Chemical effects during the formation of femtosecond laser-induced periodic surface structures
(2019)
The processing of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS, ripples) on metals and semiconductors in ambient air is usually accompanied by superficial oxidation effects – a fact that is widely neglected in the current literature. In this contribution, chemical, structural, and mechanical alterations in the formation of femtosecond LIPSS are characterized by a variety of surface analytical techniques, including energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), micro Raman spectroscopy (µ-RS), and depth-profiling Auger electron microscopy (AEM). Alternative routes of electrochemical and thermal oxidation allow to qualify the relevance of superficial oxidation effects on the tribological performance in oil lubricated reciprocating sliding tribological tests (RSTT). It is revealed that the fs-laser processing of near-wavelength sized LIPSS on metals leads to the formation of a few hundreds of nanometers thick graded oxide layers, consisting mainly of amorphous oxides. Regardless of reduced hardness and limited thickness, this nanostructured surface layer efficiently prevents a direct metal-to-metal contact in the RSTT and may also act as an anchor layer for specific wear-reducing additives contained in the used engine oil.
Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS, ripples) are a universal phenomenon that can be observed on almost any material after the irradiation by linearly polarized laser beams, particularly when using ultrashort laser pulses with durations in the femtosecond to picosecond range.
During the past few years significantly increasing research activities have been reported in the field of LIPSS, since their generation in a single-step process provides a simple way of nanostructuring and surface functionalization towards the control of optical, mechanical, biological, or chemical surface properties. In this contribution the mechanisms of formation and current applications of LIPSS are reviewed, including the colorization of technical surfaces, the control of surface wetting properties, the mimicry of the natural texture of animal integuments, the tailoring of surface colonization by bacterial biofilms, the advancement of medical pacemakers, and the improvement of the tribological performance of nanostructured metal surfaces.
Femtosecond laser-induced periodic surface structures: from light localization to applications
(2019)
This presentation reviews the current state in the field of Laser-induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS). These surface nanostructures are a universal phenomenon and can be generated on almost any material by irradiation with intense linearly polarized laser radiation. LIPSS are formed in a “self-ordered” way and are often accompanying material processing applications. They can be produced following a single-step process and enable surface functionalization through the adaption of optical, mechanical and chemical surface properties. Their structural sizes typically range from several micrometers down to less than 100 nanometers exhibiting a clear correlation with the polarization direction of the laser radiation. Various types of surface structures are classified, relevant control parameters are identified, and their material specific formation mechanisms are analyzed for different types of inorganic solids, i.e., metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics, through time-resolved optical experiments and theoretical simulations. Finally, technological applications featuring surface functionalization in the fields of optics, fluidics, medicine, and tribology are discussed.
Laser-induced periodic surface structures: from nanoscaled light localization to applications
(2019)
In this contribution the current state in the field of Laser-Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS) is reviewed. This includes the mechanisms of formation and current applications, particularly the colorization of technical surfaces, the control of surface wetting properties, the tailoring of surface colonization by bacterial biofilms, and the improvement of the tribological performance of nanostructured metal surfaces.
The influence of processing parameters on X‑ray emission during ultra‑short pulse laser machining
(2019)
During ultra-short laser material processing at high laser pulse repetition rates unwanted X-ray radiation can be generated in a quantity that may constitute a potential risk for health. An adequate X-ray radiation protection requires a thoroughly understanding of the influence of the laser processing parameters on the generation of X-ray radiation. In the present work, the generated X-ray dose during laser machining was investigated in air for varying beam scanning conditions at a pulse duration of 925 fs, a center wavelength of 1030 nm and a laser peak intensity of 2.6 × 10^14 W/cm^2. The X-ray radiation dose and the corresponding spectral X-ray emission were investigated in dependence on the laser’s pulse repetition rate and on the beam scanning speed. The results show a strong dependence of the X-ray emission on these laser processing parameters.
This presentation reviews the current state in the field of Laser-induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS). These surface nanostructures are a universal phenomenon and can be generated on almost any material by irradiation with intense linearly polarized radiation. LIPSS are formed in a “self-ordered” way and are often accompanying material processing applications. They can be produced in a single-step process and enable surface functionalization through the adaption of optical, mechanical and chemical surface properties. Their structural sizes typically range from several micrometers down to less than 100 nanometers and show a clear correlation with the polarization direction of the laser radiation. Various types of surface structures are classified, relevant control parameters are identified, and their material specific formation mechanisms are analyzed for different types of inorganic solids, i.e., metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics, through time-resolved optical experiments and theoretical simulations. Finally, technological applications featuring surface functionalization in the fields of optics, fluidics, medicine, and tribology are discussed.
Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are a universal phenomenon and can be generated on almost any material by irradiation with linearly polarized radiation. This chapter reviews the current state in the field of LIPSS, which are formed in a “self-ordered” way and are often accompanying materials processing applications. LIPSS can be produced in a single-stage process and enable surface nanostructuring and, in turn, adaption of optical, mechanical, and chemical surface properties. Typically, they feature a structural size ranging from several micrometers down to less than 100 nm and show a clear correlation with the polarization direction of the light used for their generation. Various types of LIPSS are classified, relevant control parameters are identified, and their material-specific formation mechanisms are analyzed for different types of inorganic solids, i.e., metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. Finally, technological applications featuring surface functionalization in the fields of optics, fluidics, medicine, and tribology are discussed.
Single Femtosecond Laser-Pulse-Induced Superficial Amorphization and Re-Crystallization of Silicon
(2021)
Superficial amorphization and re-crystallization of silicon in <111> and <100> orientation after irradiation by femtosecond laser pulses (790 nm, 30 fs) are studied using optical imaging and transmission electron microscopy. Spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry (SIE) allows fast data acquisition at multiple wavelengths and provides experimental data for calculating nanometric amorphous layer thickness profiles with micrometric lateral resolution based on a thin-film layer model. For a radially Gaussian laser beam and at moderate peak fluences above the melting and below the ablation thresholds, laterally parabolic amorphous layer profiles with maximum thicknesses of several tens of nanometers were quantitatively attained. The accuracy of the calculations is verified experimentally by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (STEM-EDX). Along with topographic information obtained by atomic force microscopy (AFM), a comprehensive picture of the superficial re-solidification of silicon after local melting by femtosecond laser pulses is drawn.
Laser-induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS, ripples) are a universal phenomenon and can be generated in a contactless, single-step process on almost any type of solid upon irradiation with intense laser pulses. They represent a (quasi-)periodic modulation of the surface topography in the form of a linear grating and are typically formed in a “self-ordered” way in the focus of a laser beam. Thus, they are often accompanying laser material processing applications. The structural sizes of LIPSS typically range from several micrometers down to less than 100 nanometers – far beyond the optical diffraction limit – while their orientations exhibit a clear correlation with the local polarization direction of the laser radiation.
From a theoretical point of view, a controversial debate has emerged during the last decades, whether LIPSS originate from electromagnetic effects (seeded already during the laser irradiation) – or whether they emerge from matter-reorganization processes (distinctly after the laser irradiation). From a practical point of view, however, LIPSS represent a simple and robust way for the nanostructuring of solids that allows creating a wide range of different surface functionalities featuring applications in optics, tribology, medicine, energy technologies, etc.
This presentation reviews the currently existent theories of LIPSS. A focus is laid on the historic development of the fundamental ideas behind the LIPSS, their corresponding mathematical descriptions and numerical implementations, along with a comparison and critical assessment of the different approaches.
Fourth generation light sources, namely short wavelength, short pulse free electron lasers (FELs) are offering new and fascinating possibilities to resolve laser-induced structure formation at surfaces on the sub-micrometer to nanometer length scale and in temporal regimes ranging from picoseconds to several nanoseconds with sub-picosecond resolution. This unique spatio-temporal resolution allows to reveal early signatures of coherent/plasmonic electromagnetic scattering effects followed by the excitation of hydrodynamic capillary waves – providing new insights to the above-mentioned debate.
Finally, some unsolved scientific problems related to LIPSS are identified and the pending technological limitations are discussed. While the currently available laser and scanner technology already allows large area surface processing with rates at the m2/min level, industrial applications of LIPSS are sometimes limited by the complex interplay between the nanoscale surface topography and the specific surface chemistry. This typically manifests in difficulties to control the processing of LIPSS and in limitations to ensure the long-term stability of the created surface functions. Strategies for overcoming such limitations are outlined.
Bulk metallic glasses (BMG) are amorphous metal alloys known for their unique physical and mechanical properties. In the present study, the formation of femtosecond (fs) laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) on the Zr-based BMGs Zr46Cu46Al8, Zr61Cu25Al12Ti2, Zr52.5Cu17.9Al10Ni14.6Ti5 (Vit105) and Zr57Cu15.4Al10Ni12.6Nb5 (Vit106) was investigated as a function of their different chemical composition. For this purpose, LIPSS were generated on the sample surfaces in an air environment by fs-laser irradiation (λ = 1025 nm, τ = 300 fs, frep = 100 kHz). The surface topography was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Moreover, the impact of LIPSS formation on the structure and chemical surface composition was analyzed before and after fs-laser irradiation by X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy as well as by transmission electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Despite the different chemical composition of the investigated BMGs, the fs-laser irradiation resulted in almost similar properties of the generated LIPSS patterns. In the case of Zr61Cu25Al12Ti2, Vit105 and Vit106, the surface analysis revealed the preservation of the amorphous state of the materials during fs-laser irradiation. The study demonstrated the presence of a native oxide layer on all pristine BMGs. In addition, fs-laser irradiation results in the formation of laser-induced oxide layers of larger thickness consisting of an amorphous ZrAlCu-oxide. The precise laser-structuring of BMG surfaces on the nanoscale provides a versatile alternative to thermoplastic forming of BMG surfaces and is of particular interest for the engineering of functional material surfaces.