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Economists have been searching for the sources of economic growth since the end of the 18th century. For Adam Smith the division of labour and the accumulation of capital were causes for the increasing wealth of nations. The Austrian-American economist Joseph Alois Schumpeter further established that innovations in products and processes are prerequisites for economic growth:
»The fundamental drive that starts up the capitalist machine and keeps it running comes from the new consumer goods, the new production and transport methods, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organisation, which capitalist entrepreneurship creates.«
Building on these fundamental ideas, during the 1950s American Robert M. Solow – later a Nobel prize winner – developed the first formal mathematical model of economic growth. Solow was able to use a simple model to Show that economic growth within the USA could be described by three determinants: an increase in capital (e.g. machinery and infrastructure), an increase in labour, and technical progress. Later other economists were able to further refine Solow‘s growth theory. While technical progress was accepted during the early years as a fact, it became ever easier to theoretically describe and quantify its causes. The central idea of these new models is that the state and
businesses invest in research and development, thus continually stimulating economic growth through new products and production methods.
Climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions pose tremendous challenges to policymakers, the economy, and society. In this context, the development of clean, low-emission technologies plays a crucial role in mitigating the negative impact of fossil fuels on the climate. Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier and fuel that, thanks to its versatility, can be used in many applications. However, the adoption of hydrogen technology requires sufficient trust in its safety. To proxy the development of hydrogen safety innovations, we provide an analysis along the three knowledge and technology transfer channels of publications, patents, and standards. Our results show that research on hydrogen safety has increased significantly in the last decades, with hydrogen safety patents experiencing a general upward trend between 1980 and 2020, just recently decreasing. However, an analysis of almost 100 international hydrogen and fuel cell standards shows only a small number of references to scientific publications. This apparently limited transfer of knowledge from publications points to the need to optimize the coordination of the three knowledge and technology transfer channels for the future development of hydrogen technology. Based on the exploration of this gap, we recommend that research on the three channels for hydrogen be intensified and that the impact of hydrogen safety technology research and development on their diffusion be investigated.
In the wake of digitalization, organizations are increasingly exposed to risks associated with security breaches and must take measures to preserve the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information, and to ensure business continuity. The international standard ISO/IEC 27001 assists organizations in setting up, maintaining and continuously improving their information security management systems. However, despite high growth rates, its international diffusion rates are quite heterogeneous. This paper explores why the diffusion of the international management system standard ISO/IEC 27001 differs across countries. We classify the adoption of ISO/IEC 27001 as a ‘preventive organizational innovation’ and draw from diffusion studies of other management system standards and information security research to develop a set of hypotheses. These relate to the impact of cultural dimensions and national ICT development. We use a negative binomial regression model with panel data covering 57 countries over a 12-year period from 2006 to 2017 to test our hypotheses. We find that the cultural dimensions future orientation, power distance, and institutional collectivism as well as high ICT development are driving factors for the diffusion of ISO/IEC 27001. We derive policy recommendations and avenues for future research.
In the light of digitalization and recent EU policy initiatives, information is an important asset that organizations of all sizes and from all sectors should secure. However, in order to provide common requirements for the implementation of an information security management system, the internationally well-accepted ISO/IEC 27001 standard has not shown the expected growth rate since its publication more than a decade ago.In this article, we apply web mining to explore the adoption of ISO/IEC 27001 through a series of 2664 out of more than 900 000 German firms from the Mannheim Enterprise Panel dataset that refers to this standard on their websites. As a result, we present a “landscape” of ISO/IEC 27001 in Germany, which shows that firms not only seek certifications themselves but often refer on their websites to partners who are certified instead. Consequently, we estimate a probit model and find that larger and more innovative firms are more likely to be certified to ISO/IEC 27001 and that almost half of all certified firms belong to the information and communications technology (ICT) service sector. Based on our findings, we derive implications for policymakers and management and critically assess the suitability of web mining to explore the adoption of management system standards.
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) poses multiple challenges to traditional standardization, due to the complexity, dynamics, and accelerating speed of technological progress. The need for a timely availability of standards calls for new approaches and tools to enhance standardization processes for smart manufacturing. Industry and standards development organizations worldwide are seeking new solutions. Testbeds have been acknowledged in innovation policy as a powerful tool for knowledge transfer and the further development of emerging technologies. Lately, they have also attracted increasing attention from the standardization perspective as a promising tool for a more agile standards development process. Proponents of such testbeds expect them to support standardization by providing validated solutions and accelerating the processes to meet the growing demands for faster standardization without any detriment to quality. In an explorative, qualitative approach this article is the first to investigate the operation and impact of testbeds in standardization processes based on a multiple case study on testbeds implemented worldwide in the context of the IIoT.
Clean technologies play a crucial role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and protecting the climate. Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier and fuel that can be used in many applications. We explore the global hydrogen technological innovation system (TIS) by analyzing the three knowledge and technology transfer channels of publications, patents, and standards. Since the adoption of hydrogen technologies requires trust in their safety,this study specifically also focuses on hydrogen safety. Our results show that general and hydrogen safety research has increased significantly while patenting experienced stagnation. An analysis of the non-patent literature in safety patents shows little recognition of scientific publications. Similarly, publications are underrepresented in the analyzed 75 international hydrogen and fuel cell standards. This limited transfer of knowledge from published research to standards points to the necessity for greater involvement of researchers in standardization. We further derive implications for the hydrogen TIS and recommendations for a better and more impactful alignment of the three transfer channels.
The Impact of Publications, Patents, and Standards on International Trade - The Case of Hydrogen
(2022)
Hydrogen as a clean energy carrier has received increased attention due to climate change and the need to introduce new, low-emissions technologies to the market. However, the drivers of increased hydrogen use have been barely explored. Therefore, this research paper investigates the impacts of publications, patents, and standards on international hydrogen trade, an established technology diffusion channel. In a fixed-effects (FE) regression model covering 37 countries between 1995 and 2020, we demonstrate that publications, patents, and standards are associated with increased levels of hydrogen exports and imports. Furthermore, we test the technology gap theory and explore the meaning of our empirical results for the hydrogen technological innovation system (TIS). Among others, we show that publications, patents, and standards can contribute to a more developed hydrogen TIS.
Against the backdrop of the sustainability transition of economies worldwide, decarbonizing road traffic is high on the agenda. This has focused the interest of policymakers and automobile manufacturers on sustainable, zero-emission powertrain technologies. Among these technologies, hydrogen fuel cell (FC) vehicles have a positive climate impact, given that their hydrogen is produced from renewable energy. However, FC vehicles have not yet gained significant market shares. Therefore, based on the technological innovation systems (TIS) approach, this study analyzes how FC vehicles are influenced by EVs and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles as their context structures. To operationalize the technology relations between our focal FC-TIS and its context structures, we use the sum of international publications, patents filed at the European Patent Office, and international ISO and IEC standards as indicators for each technology. Our results show that the FC-TIS is dominated by its context structures, especially regarding commercially relevant patents and international standards. Therefore, we conclude that the FC-TIS is in its formative life-cycle phase and identify the need for intensified patenting and standardization in relation to the competing EVs and ICE vehicles.