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New thermography systems enable the application of active investigation techniques, i.e. the observation of the cooling down process after heating the surface of a structure under investigation. Defects like voids in concrete having a different thermal diffusivity in comparison to the bulk material are visualised by different surface temperatures. The differences between temperature transient curves above sound regions and above inhomogeneities are expected to include information about the defect parameters.
Experimental investigations with impulse thermography and radar on a concrete test specimen containing voids were analysed. Radar was used to determine the depth of the voids. The influence of size and depth of the voids on the temperature transient curves was studied for different heating times. The transient curves were also fitted with a simple semi-empirical model.
Impulse-thermography has been established as a fast and reliable tool in many areas of non-destructive testing. In recent years several investigations have been done to apply active thermography to civil engineering. For quantitative investigations in this area of application, finite difference calculations have been performed for systematic studies on the influence of environmental conditions, heating power and time, defect depth and size and thermal properties of the bulk material (concrete). The comparison of simulated and experimental data enables the quantitative analysis of defects.
Impulse-thermography is an active method for quantitative investigation of the near surface region of various structures which has recently been applied to civil engineering. It is well suited for the detection of voids and honeycombing in concrete up to concrete covers of 10 cm and more. For quantitative analysis, a computer program for numerical simulation of the heating up and cooling down processes was developed based on Finite Differences. With this program parameter studies have been performed for investigating the influence of environmental conditions, material parameters and geometry on the thermal behaviour. The comparison between experimental and simulated results enables the Inverse Solution.
Determination of chloride content in concrete structures with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
(2005)
An important criterion for the evaluation of reinforced concrete structures is the measurement of the chloride content. This will normally be done by time consuming standard chemical methods. We propose the application of a spectroscopic technique, the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), which provides the advantages of a fast measurement, the potential for on-site application and the possibility to investigate a wide range of different measuring points. The surface can be scanned, or depth profiles are available from cores. Measurements can be performed directly on the sample surface and the results are available in near real time. We present LIBS results measured on concrete cores as well as on grinded and pressed material in comparison with the results of standard chemical methods. The optimum LIBS set-up and the experimental conditions to detect and measure chlorine in building materials are reported. The limits of detection were determined and calibration curves were measured.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) of concrete structures is performed using pulse-echo methods. According to the type of the applied waves it can be classified as acoustic (Impact-Echo, Ultrasonics) and electromagnetic methods (Radar). The results are visualised through different imaging processes. This work is performed in the frame of a research project promoted by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (FOR384). The objective of data fusion is to use the complementary information of the different methods. Radar can detect metallic reflectors in concrete (metallic ducts and concrete reinforcement) very well. This method is not able to locate defects behind these reflectors (injecting defects, defects behind close concrete reinforcement), because the electromagnetic waves are completely reflected at metals. The acoustic methods are able to compensate this deficit i.e. Acoustic waves can penetrate through metal. But acoustic waves in the ultrasonic range are completely reflected by air layers. Air layers have smaller influence on radar propagation, so that both methods complement each other. In order to be able to combine the NDT-data from several methods records at the same volume, the different data setsmodes of signals must be adapted. The ultrasonic and radar data have to be reconstructed with programs based on the Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) before data fusion. Subsequently, a conversion of the data into a uniform format has to be carried out. This is a prerequisite in order to keep the data exchange between the project partners as simple as possible. After the data sets are imported and transferred into a common reference system, they can be processed with operations according to the purpose of the investigation. Results, which have been achieved in concrete test specimen with radar and ultrasonics, will be presented and will show the feasibility of the data fusion method.
Results of reconstructed and fused NDT-data measured in the laboratory and on-site at bridges
(2006)
Non-destructive testing (NDT) of concrete structures plays an increasing role in civil engineering. This paper presents the results of measurements carried out in the laboratory at BAM and on-site at several bridges using reconstructed and fused radar and ultrasonic echo data sets. In this context different scanning systems, developed for the on-site application of NDT-methods (e.g. reinforced concrete bridges) are introduced. The main object was the demonstration of the improved effectiveness of radar and ultrasonic pulse echo technique due to the automated measurements and the application of new software for the data processing and data visualisation. The results of these measurements show the high potential of reconstruction and data fusion for the improvement and simplification of the interpretability of large data sets measured with impulse-echo methods.
The low-strain pile integrity testing method is used for quality control of new piles as well as length and integrity check for old piles. If no other methods for calibration are available, the accuracy and reliability of the techniques depend on a good estimation of the elastic wave velocity. In practice it is assumed that piles can be tested 7 days after casting and that the velocity is almost constant in all piles of one kind in a construction project. Recent measurements at the BAM test site in Horstwalde, Germany, showed that the 7 day criterion is not generally applicable.
A new approach is discussed for characterizing the damage state of FRP with the appearance of micro cracking and its influence on the residual strength. For the quantitative analysis of micro cracking, X-ray refraction topography was used. Fatigue treatment of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) laminates were performed to create defined damage states. With regard to real loading conditions of CFRP, studies on tube samples were performed to investigate two dimensional (tensiontorsion) loads. A rheological material model was presented which described the increase of micro cracking in ±45° CFRP laminates with a continuum mechanical approach. The correlation between the results of the X-ray refraction topography, the damage parameter of the rheological model and the decrease of residual strength were shown. The inter fibre fracture surface of the investigated CFRP materials was determined with tensiontorsion loaded tube specimens of 90°-laminate and a layer-wise strength analysis was done. Micro cracking occurs even at 50% inter-fibre fracture loading and can lead to a distinct strength reduction. The intralaminar fatigue effect itself seems to be an indication for the damage accumulation and the load history.
Impulse-thermography is an active method for quantitative investigations of the near surface region of various structures. It has recently been applied and optimised to applications in civil engineering. By using either an internal or external heat source, parts of the structure under investigation are heated up and the transient heat flux is observed by recording the temperature change at the surface as a function of time. This method is very well suited for the detection of voids and honeycombing in concrete, up to concrete covers of 10 cm as well as for the location of delaminations in multi-layered systems (e.g. plaster on concrete, CFRP-laminates on concrete, asphalt on concrete). Also safety relevant defects like voids in tendon ducts and cracks in concrete could be recognised.
Dielectric and electromechanical properties of the cellular polypropylene ferroelectret films (EMFIT), combining strong piezoelectric response with a low density and softness, evidence their high potential for the air-coupled ultrasonic applications. The disadvantage of the low coupling factor is compensated by the extremely low acoustic impedance, which provides excellent matching to air and promises efficient sound transmission through the airtransducer interface. The influence of the electrodes on the electromechanical properties was investigated. Electron beam evaporation technology was adapted to the EMFIT films, and films with both-sided Au and Al electrodes were prepared without reducing or suppressing of the electromechanical properties. Finally, prototype transducers based on the EMFIT films were developed. In spite of the simple construction and absence of matching layers, high sensitivity of the EMFIT transducers was proved in the air-coupled ultrasonic experiment. Amplitude and delay time scanned images of the polyethylene step wedge with holes, obtained in both pulse-echo and transmission modes, demonstrate that non-contact ultrasonic imaging and testing with EMFIT transducers is possible.
Validation of non-destructive testing methods is necessary to create a common basis where different systems can be compared and their applications and limitations be identified. This can be achieved through comparing the measurements taken by several systems used for a common diagnostic purpose under practical but controlled testing conditions. Well-designed small and large laboratory or field specimens promise such conditions.
The special concrete specimen (LCS) at BAM was constructed for validation purposes, in particular, to be used for evaluating the performance of echo methods. The thickness of the specimen is varying and it contains carefully designed built-in faults, such as voids, honeycombs and tendon ducts with various degrees of grouting defects. Since the geometry and condition of the defects are known, it can be used to compare the performance of radar, ultrasonic, impact-echo. The research was conducted within the Research group FOR384, sponsored by the German Research Society DFG.
This paper presents the progress of successful location of grouting faults in tendon ducts with ultrasonic imaging. The examples were obtained in the research group FOR 384 funded by DFG (German Research Foundation). The co-operation of experimental research and modeling allowed imaging and identification of grouted and ungrouted areas of tendon ducts (including strands) in a large test specimen (40 m²). In addition to the criteria for indicating grouting faults in post-tensioned ducts known until now the phase evaluation of reflected ultrasonic pulses is described. Experiments and modeling of wave propagation are presented for reflections at metal plates in concrete (thickness range 0.5 mm to 40 mm) and for tendon ducts including strands.
The main part of the progress was achieved by automated measurements using dry contact transducers, 3D-SAFT reconstruction including phase evaluation and modeling considering wave propagation for typical elastic parameters and exact experimental site conditions. The results for shear waves as well as for pressure waves are compared in the frequency range from 50 kHz to 120 kHz.
Application of synchrotron infrared radiation in the study of organic coatings in cross-sections
(2008)
Collecting different geophysical data sets at the same object and site offers the opportunity to reduce uncertainties and ambiguities in data analysis and interpretation. To be effective, the different available data sets should be linked during the model-generation process, e.g. by cooperative inversion. In this study, we apply a recently developed zonal cooperative inversion approach based on fuzzy c-means cluster analysis to a non-destructive testing experiment. After briefly reviewing the fundamentals of the inversion strategy, we present a synthetic study investigating the potential of the method to detect air-filled voids in masonry by using ultrasonic and georadar traveltime data. Then, we present and discuss laboratory experiments including the results of cooperatively inverted ultrasonic and georadar traveltimes collected at a masonry test specimen. The geometry of the specimen is known and is thus an ideal test object for a first-time real application of the novel zonal cooperative inversion procedure. Compared to the results of separate inversions of ultrasonic and georadar traveltimes, the zonal cooperative inversion allows for an improved delineation of the size and position of the cavities. The P-wave and georadar velocities determined for the model regions corresponding to the cavities are also improved.
Unsafe tailings management facilities (TMFs) have caused serious accidents in Europe (e.g., Baia Mare, Romania, in 2000, Aznalcóllar, Spain, in 1998, and Stava, Italy, in 1985), threatening human health/life and the environment. While advanced design, construction and management procedures are available, their implementation requires greater emphasis. An integrated research project funded by the European Union was carried out between 2002 and 2005 with the overall goal of improving the safety of TMFs (Sustainable Improvement in Safety of Tailings Facilities-TAILSAFE, http://www.tailsafe.com/). The objective of TAILSAFE was to develop and apply methods of parameter evaluation and measurement for the assessment and improvement of the safety state of tailings facilities, with particular attention to the stability of tailings dams and slurries, the special risks inherent when such materials include toxic or hazardous wastes, and authorization and management procedures for tailings facilities. Aspects of tailings facilities design, water management and slurry transport, non-destructive and minimally intrusive testing methods, monitoring and the application of sensors, intervention and remediation options were considered in TAILSAFE. A risk reduction framework (the TAILSAFE Parameter Framework) was established to contribute to the avoidance of catastrophic accidents and hazards from tailings facilities. Tailings from the mining and primary processing of metals, minerals and coal were included within the scope of TAILSAFE. The project focused on the avoidance of hazards by developing procedures and methods for investigating and improving the stability of tailings dams and tailings bodies.
Fe K-edge XANES measurements were performed to determine the oxidation state of iron in iron gall inks. These data are used to investigate the relationship between the Fe oxidation state and ink corrosion in historical manuscripts. The oxidation state is determined using the pre-edge based on a general variation trend that was derived from model compounds and validated here independently on a suite of samples with known oxidation state and Fe in octahedral coordination (i.e. similar to Fe in gall ink). As long as suitable references for the pure ferric and ferrous state of iron gall inks cannot be pointed out, the analysis of the pre-edge of the Fe K-edge represents the only way to acquire absolute values for the Fe oxidation state (Fe3+/Fetot) with spatial resolution for this usually non-crystalline compound. Fe3+/Fetot values for the ink samples vary between ca. 0.7 and 1.0. Spatially resolved analyses performed across ink strokes of various historical manuscripts as well as newly made samples did not reveal any systematic spatial dependence. On average, historical samples that were exposed to conservation treatments show a more oxidized state. However, the measurements demonstrate explicitly that the exposure to X-rays during the XANES acquisition affects the oxidation state of Fe in most iron gall inks.
Single-pulse tests of the catastrophic optical damage (COD) are performed for three batches of diode lasers with different gain-regions. The tests involve in situ inspection of front, rear, and side of the devices by a thermocamera. Devices with an Al-containing gain-region show COD at the front facet, as expected for strong facet heating via surface recombination and reabsorption of laser light. In contrast, Al-free devices with low surface recombination rates tend to fail at the rear facet, pointing to a different heating scenario. The high carrier density at the rear facet favors heating and COD via Auger recombination processes.
In this work, the applicability of a new 3D micro X-ray fluorescence (3D Micro-XRF) laboratory spectrometer for the investigation of historical glass objects is demonstrated. The non-destructiveness of the technique and the possibility to measure three-dimensionally resolved fluorescence renders this technique into a suitable tool for the analysis of cultural heritage objects. Although absorption and resolution effects complicate qualitative analysis of the data, layered structures can be distinguished from homogeneous samples without the need for full quantification. Different manufacturing techniques were studied in this work with the help of hand-made reference samples. With the gained knowledge it could be shown for the investigated historical glass object, that black enamel as a stained glass contour colour was used in a cold painting. The object was not fired after the application of the black enamel, but instead the adhesion of the paint was solely provided through organic binding agents and the backing with metal foils. Thus, for the manufacturing of the object, a mixture of cold painting technique with a stained glass color was used. Quantitative measurements with a 3D Micro-XRF setup at the Berlin synchrotron BESSY II confirm the assumptions drawn on the basis of the qualitative investigation with the 3D Micro-XRF spectrometer with X-ray tube excitation.
The findings indicate that rolling contact fatigue with consecutive head checks develops preferentially in rail sections that have experienced operational work-hardening. Such hardening can be identified by instruments measuring the increased hardness values with respect to the base material. Eddy current testing was initially introduced with the aim to detect head checks and determine their damage depth. Because the material texture influences eddy current flow in the test objects very strongly, variations in hardness can easily be visualised using this method. Thus, in principle, it is possible to predict places where head checks will emerge later. This knowledge may be very helpful in improving our understanding of head check emergence under real conditions. This knowledge may also help in developing new and effective precautionary maintenance strategies.
Moisture ingress is one of major damaging factors for masonry buildings. As the complex resistivity (CR) is sensitive to textural properties as well as to the pore fluid chemistry of wet porous media, its non-destructive application can provide helpful information for conservators. In a comprehensive laboratory study it has been shown that CR might even be able to distinguish between salt content and saturation degree in only one measurement. The combined use of electrical and electromagnetic measurement techniques in two field-scale flooding experiments has shown some unexpected differences. Possible reasons are discussed and it is shown that bringing together the information of both methods leads to a clearer picture.
Complex special inspection of an old masonry arch bridge according to the Guideline on Inspection and Condition Assessment of Railway Bridges and numerical analysis of the structure are presented. The guideline summarises recommendations for the step-by-step investigation of railway bridges applying enhanced methods developed during the EU-funded project Sustainable Bridges. For the investigation of the arch barrel, the ballast parameters and the inner structure of the backfill behind the arch barrel a number of various advanced non-destructive and minor-destructive testing methods were applied. Deformation of the structure during load tests was measured using three independent measuring systems: laser vibrometer, LVDT and microwave radar. Results of calculations performed with 2D and 3D models based on FEM are compared with the field load tests. Sensitivity of the ultimate load of the structure to investigated parameters is studied in FE model. Some general conclusions according to methods of testing and modelling of masonry arch bridges are presented and discussed.
Mechanisms and fast kinetics of the catastrophic optical damage (COD) in GaAs-based diode lasers
(2011)
COD diagram determined for a batch of broad-area AlGaAs diode lasers. The time to COD within a single current pulse is plotted versus the actual average optical power in the moment when the COD takes place. Full circles stand for clearly identified COD events (right ordinate), whereas open circles (left ordinate) represent the pulse duration in experiments, where no COD has been detected. A borderline (gray) exists between two regions, i. e., parameter sets, of presence (orange) and absence of COD (blue). This borderline is somewhat blurred because of the randomness in filamentation of the laser nearfield and scatter in properties of the involved individual devices.
In this paper, a method is presented for the numerical computation of dispersion properties and mode shapes of guided waves in plate structures. The formulation is based on the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method. The through-thickness direction of the plate is discretized in the finite element sense, while the direction of propagation is described analytically. This leads to a standard eigenvalue problem for the calculation of wave numbers. The proposed method is not limited to homogeneous plates. Multi-layered composites as well as structures with continuously varying material parameters in the direction of thickness can be modeled without essential changes in the formulation. Higher-order elements have been employed for the finite element discretization, leading to excellent convergence for complex structures. It is shown by numerical examples that this method provides highly accurate results with a small number of nodes while avoiding numerical problems and instabilities.
GMR sensors are widely used in many industrial segments such as information technology, automotive, automation and production, and safety applications. Each area requires an adaption of the sensor arrangement in terms of size adaption and alignment with respect to the field source involved. This paper deals with an analysis of geometric sensor parameters and the arrangement of GMR sensors providing a design roadmap for non-destructive testing (NDT) applications. For this purpose we use an analytical model simulating the magnetic flux leakage (MFL) distribution of surface breaking defects and investigate the flux leakage signal as a function of various sensor parameters. Our calculations show both the influence of sensor length and height and that when detecting the magnetic flux leakage of µm sized defects a gradiometer base line of 250 µm leads to a signal strength loss of less than 10% in comparison with a magnetometer response. To validate the simulation results we finally performed measurements with a GMR magnetometer sensor on a test plate with artificial µm-range cracks. The differences between simulation and measurement are below 6%. We report on the routes for a GMR gradiometer design as a basis for the fabrication of NDT-adapted sensor arrays. The results are also helpful for the use of GMR in other application when it comes to measure positions, lengths, angles or electrical currents.
Double-side cooled high-power diode laser bars packaged by different techniques on different types of passive heat sinks are analyzed in terms of packaging-induced strain. Reference data from standard devices being single-side cooled only and packaged by conventional soft and hard soldering are also presented. Thermal profiling across the devices complements the results. The most suitable packaging architecture and technique for double-side cooled bars is identified. Measurements of the laser emission near field and electroluminescence pattern provide direct reference to the functionality of the devices. Furthermore, a type of cross calibration of the methods used for strain analysis is made, since all techniques are applied to the same set of bars. This involves micro photoluminescence, micro Raman, and degree-of-polarization electroluminescence spectroscopy.
Complex special inspection of an old masonry arch bridge according to the Guideline on Inspection and Condition Assessment of Railway Bridges and numerical analysis of the structure are presented. The guideline summarises recommendations for the step-by-step investigation of railway bridges applying enhanced methods developed during the EU-funded project Sustainable Bridges. For the investigation of the arch barrel, the ballast parameters and the inner structure of the backfill behind the arch barrel a number of various advanced non-destructive and minor-destructive testing methods were applied. Deformation of the structure during load tests was measured using three independent measuring systems: laser vibrometer, LVDT and microwave radar. Results of calculations performed with 2D and 3D models based on FEM are compared with the field load tests. Sensitivity of the ultimate load of the structure to investigated parameters is studied in FE model. Some general conclusions according to methods of testing and modelling of masonry arch bridges are presented and discussed.
Short fibre reinforced thermoplastics are increasingly used in automotive applications because of their potential for light weight design and cost efficient manufacturing by injection moulding. The fibre orientation, tuneable in the production process, defines the degree of anisotropy which causes different damage behaviour depending on the multiaxial stress state.
Therefore, the multiaxial damage behaviour, based on micro cracking, is analysed by combining mechanical loading tests and non-destructive X-ray refractometry.
Ultrasound propagation in inhomogeneous anisotropic materials is difficult to examine because of the directional dependency of elastic properties. Simulation tools play an important role in developing advanced reliable ultrasonic non destructive testing techniques for the inspection of anisotropic materials particularly austenitic cladded materials, austenitic welds and dissimilar welds. In this contribution we present an adapted 2D ray tracing model for evaluating ultrasonic wave fields quantitatively in inhomogeneous anisotropic materials. Inhomogeneity in the anisotropic material is represented by discretizing into several homogeneous layers. According to ray tracing model, ultrasonic ray paths are traced during its energy propagation through various discretized layers of the material and at each interface the problem of reflection and transmission is solved. The presented algorithm evaluates the transducer excited ultrasonic fields accurately by taking into account the directivity of the transducer, divergence of the ray bundle, density of rays and phase relations as well as transmission coefficients. The ray tracing model is able to calculate the ultrasonic wave fields generated by a point source as well as a finite dimension transducer. The ray tracing model results are validated quantitatively with the results obtained from 2D Elastodynamic Finite Integration Technique (EFIT) on several configurations generally occurring in the ultrasonic non destructive testing of anisotropic materials. Finally, the quantitative comparison of ray tracing model results with experiments on 32 mm thick austenitic weld material and 62 mm thick austenitic cladded material is discussed.
Case studies
(2013)
In this paper, some quite different survey tasks are described, and it can be seen that corrosion surveys will follow a certain scheme of data acquisition (first NDT measurements, than detailed testing on suspect areas), but the individual scope of on-site measurements may have a vast variety according to the local circumstances, and the interpretation always has to refer to a wider set of information than the data readings only.
The safety assessment of railway axles is based on a two-stage approach: fatigue strength design and regular inspections which, in terms of a general safety philosophy refer to safe-life and damage tolerance concepts. Starting with a recent failure case, a broken axle of a German high speed train, a discussion is presented on issues of both safety levels. These include ideas for finite life design, the treatment of in-service effects on the fatigue strength due to flying ballast damage and corrosion pits, the effect of corrosion on fatigue crack initiation and propagation, potential effects of non-metallic inclusions in steels, the way to detect them by quality control measures and reliability aspects of non-destructive testing with respect to the detection of fatigue cracks. Proposals are made how the safety level could be further improved.
Size adapted GMR arrays for the automated inspection of surface breaking cracks in roller bearings
(2014)
Their small size together with a remarkable field sensitivity are the most prominent features of present-day GMR sensors paving the way for various applications in automated non-destructive testing (NDT). This work presents a prototype for fast and automated magnetic testing of roller bearings. A local magnetization unit excites the magnetic field inside the bearing. As a result of a design study and the following wafer fabrication the probe was equipped with NDT-adapted GMR sensor arrays in which 48 elements measures the field response. The detection of artificial and 40 µm deep defects could be resolved with a SNR better than 20 dB. In addition, we report of first results of a POD (Probability of Detection) analysis using GMR sensors to investigate bearings with EDM (electronic discharge machining) notches having depths down to 10 µm. Finally, we estimate successfully the depth of a 57 µm notch from the measured data.
We present a prototype for automated magnetic stray field testing of ferromagnetic roller bearings. For this purpose NDE-adapted GMR sensor arrays (giant magneto resistance) are used for the detection of surface breaking cracks. The sensors are miniaturized down to the lower µm-regime to achieve adequate spatial resolution. In doing so, sensor arrays with up to 48 elements are used to inspect the bearing surface within a few seconds only. In contrast to magnetic particle inspection (MPI), where the global magnetization requires a further inspection step and succeeding demagnetization, the presented prototype only locally magnetize the surface area in the vicinity of the GMR Sensors. For the local magnetization, the applied sub-surface magnetic field was simulated and proofed for detecting flaws with a depth of a few 10 µm. By multiplexing the sensor array with an adapted read out electronics we quasi simultaneously detect the normal field component of about 100µm above the surface. The detection of artificial notches with a depth of 40 µm and more could be resolved with a SNR better than 20 dB. The presented testing facility is fast and provides a step towards automated testing of safety relevant steel components.
The multiaxial fatigue damage behaviour of short fibre reinforced polyamide 6 is analysed on injection moulded tube samples. In parallel with the fatigue tests, the damage state is evaluated
nondestructively by X-ray refraction analysis which detects inner surfaces by the variation of electron density. By applying X-ray refraction analysis and a model based on by GÜNZEL the micro damage evolution can be separated into fibre matrix debonding and matrix-Micro cracking.
Trans-European corridors for transport of people and goods require strengthening of bridges to carry increased axle loads in terms of absolute axle loads and of their frequency. Most of the bridges along highways are reinforced or prestressed concrete bridges.
Since the late 1990s, CFRP laminates have been applied to box girder and T-beam bridges to increase the overall capacity. Although regular inspections are carried out, no special method was available to test the bond condition of CFRP laminates after being in Service for more than ten years. The German Center of Competence in Civil Engineering is aware of this need and funded a research project to investigate the bond condition by means of advanced non-destructive testing (NDT).
The capabilities of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for defect detection in civil engineering are characterized by their different penetration depth, resolution and sensitivity to material properties. Therefore, in many cases multi-sensor NDT has to be performed, producing large data sets that require an efficient data evaluation framework. In this work an image fusion methodology is proposed based on unsupervised clustering methods. Their performance is evaluated on ground penetrating radar and infrared thermography data from laboratory concrete specimens with different simulated near-surface defects. It is shown that clustering could effectively partition the data for further feature level-based data fusion by improving the detectability of defects simulating delamination, voids and localized water. A comparison with supervised symbol level fusion shows that clustering-based fusion outperforms this, especially in situations with very limited knowledge about the material properties and depths of the defects. Additionally, clustering is successfully applied in a case study where a multi-sensor NDT data set was automatically collected by a self-navigating mobile robot system.
Die Bewertung des Zustandes und der Haftung von Putz und Fassadenelementen auf den darunterliegenden Bauwerksstrukturen ist eine häufig auftretende Fragestellung bei der Erhaltung und Instandsetzung von Bauwerken und Baudenkmälern. Hier müssen nicht nur wirtschaftliche und denkmalpflegerische, sondern auch sicherheitsrelevante Aspekte berücksichtigt werden. Fehlstellen und Ablösungen können, auch wiederholend, mit hoher Nachweisempfindlichkeit mit aktiven Thermografieverfahren geortet und unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen quantitativ bewertet werden. Dazu wird der zu untersuchende Bereich zunächst kurzzeitig (mehrere Minuten lang) erwärmt und anschließend die Abkühlung mit einer Infrarotkamera aufgezeichnet. Systematische Untersuchungen an Probekörpern mit einer Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Fehlstellen unterhalb von Kalkputz, Fliesen und Klinkerriemchen zeigen, dass die Fehlstellen sowohl mittels künstlicher Erwärmung durch einen Infrarotstrahler als auch mittels natürlicher Erwärmung durch die Sonne detektiert und charakterisiert werden können. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The evaluation of condition and adhesion of plaster and façade elements to the underlying building structure is a common issue in the maintenance and repair of buildings and monuments. Here not only economic and preservation, but also safety relevant aspects have to be considered. Voids and delaminations can be detected repeatedly with high sensitivity using active thermography methods. Under certain conditions, also a quantitative evaluation is possible. The area under investigation has to be heated up for a short time (up to several minutes). Subsequently, the cooling down is recorded using an infrared camera. Systematic studies on test specimens with a variety of defects below lime plaster, tiles and brick tiles show that the defects can be detected and even characterized both by means of artificial heating using an infrared heater, as well as by natural solar heating.
For almost 15 years, carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) plates and sheets have been used for strengthening and repair of civil engineering structures. CFRP plates were applied to upgrade structures for change in use or increasing traffic load. CFRP laminates have also been used to repair deteriorated structures such as multi-storey parking or bridges. The execution quality and condition of the strengthening measure in terms of bond integrity were neither monitored nor tested systematically. Inspectors eventually applied simple hammer knocking during regular main inspection for subjective noise distinction as a measure for eventual insufficient bond. This paper presents the feasibility and the limitations of low-frequency transversal ultrasonic waves with dry-coupling point-contact sensors for inspection and defect detection between CFRP laminate and concrete surfaces. The German Centre of Competence in Civil Engineering (DIBt) has initiated a national research project [Helmerich et al. (2012). Condition analysis of bonded CFRP-applications on concrete structures by means of non-destructive testing [in German: Zustandsuntersuchung von CFK-Klebeverstärkungen an Betonbauteilen mittels zerstörungsfreier Prüfung (ZfP)]. Final, internal project report], carried out at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Germany. The aim of the project was to present a potential non-destructive testing method for bond defect detection as a measure for the durability of the strengthening system more than 10 years after application.
The following paper focuses on the evolution of micro damage in short fibre reinforced polyamide. Therefore, tube samples are subjected to uni- and biaxial fatigue loadings. The evolution of micro damage is analysed by the non-destructive method of X-ray refraction analysis with consideration of the fibre orientation distribution. For validation of the applied micro damage models, fractographic analyses are performed.
Concluding some general results, it has been observed that the load ratio influences the quantitative dominance of micro damage, whereas occuring damage phenomena depend on the type of loading (i.e. tension and torsion). Thus, zones in the Haigh-diagram are detected, where the occurence of damage mechanisms qualitatively and quantitatively changes. This is a basis for further research regarding anisotropic damage criteria.
Comparison of concepts for a point-shaped energy density detector after flash lamp excitation
(2016)
The paper describes investigations and Research work in order to develop a simple sensor for the quantification of spectral broadband energy Dissipation of flash lamps at any point in space. Such Flash lamps are often used as energy source during active thermography testing (TT). Here, the temperature transient of the sensor surface has to be recorded by the infrared camera that is already present. During the following data evaluation, the energy input into the investigated specimen can be determined. Two opposite concepts were considered: thermal thick and thermal thin probes. The direct comparison shows advantages for thermal thick probes based on the physics of thermal balance processes.
Light damage to selected organic materials in display cases: A study of different light sources
(2016)
The protection of works of art and cultural assets against light-induced aging is vital when planning exhibitions. Newly developed lighting systems render the selection of suitable light sources more difficult, not least in the context of energy–economical systems. This study accordingly examines different lighting systems (fluorescent tubes, halogen lamps, low-voltage metal halide lamps, and LED lamps) in terms of the damage potential they hold for the materials concerned. The changes in color were evaluated using the CIEDE2000 color-difference formula. This study focuses on selected organic materials and shows that changes in color already occur after only a brief exposure time. The color changes induced by the fluorescent tubes were consistently more intense than those induced by the other light sources. The results obtained with the remaining lamps show that the color changes depend more on the material under investigation than on the source used. The changes determined after a relatively short exposure period (five months) vividly demonstrate that exposing sensitive materials to light for longer terms (as is the case during a permanent exhibition) is most definitely a non-viable option.
The paper presents an attempt for the calibration of an active
thermography method that is suitable for the non-destructive
evaluation of spot welds. Nowadays, the quality of spot welds is
commonly characterised by the application of random chisel tests,
which are time consuming, expensive and destructive. Recently a
non-destructive testing method by means of active thermography
was proposed that relies on the fact that the mechanical connection
formed by the spot weld also serves as a thermal bridge between
the two steel sheets joined in the welding process. It is shown in this
paper that this thermal bridge can be thermographically characterised
by extracting a measure for the spot weld diameter and hence the
quality of the spot weld. The determination of the absolute value
of the diameter hereby relies on a calibration of the testing system,
which is performed by means of X-ray computed tomography in this
study. The experiments were carried out using different experimental
approaches, namely transmission as well as reflection geometry
wSetup in reflectionith laser illumination. A comprehensive evaluation
of samples produced using different welding currents, hence different
quality, was carried out in order to validate the thermographic results.
Die Bestimmung der Belegreife von Estrichen erfolgt im Bauwesen meist unter Verwendung von zerstörenden Verfahren, die Probenentnahmen erfordern und nur punktuelle Daten liefern. Bei anhydritgebundenen Estrichen gelten 0,5 M% und bei zementgebundenen ca. 3,5 M% und höher als belegreifer Feuchtegehalt. Die Belegreife wird als Feuchtegehalt in Masseprozent (M%) bezogen auf die Trockenmasse des Baustoffes angegeben. Zur zerstörungsfreien Feuchtemessung existieren verschiedene einfach zu bedienende Handgeräte, die u. a. auf elektrischen, elektromagnetischen und kapazitiven Methoden beruhen. In dieser Arbeit wurden ein kapazitives (Kugelsonde), ein elektromagnetisches (Mikrowellensensoren) und ein elektrisches Messverfahren (Vierelektroden-Sonde) untersucht. Mit Ausnahme der Vierelektroden-Sonde weisen die Handgeräte keine ausreichende Sensitivität in Bereichen niedriger Feuchtegehalte unterhalb von 1 M% auf und scheinen somit nicht für anhydritgebundene Estriche geeignet zu sein. Für zementgebundene Estriche lassen sich hingegen mit allen getesteten Geräten Änderungen in dem Bereich der Belegreife erfassen. In dieser Arbeit wird zusätzlich die Wasserabgabe in g/m²/Tag als Bezugsgröße herangezogen. Die Wasserabgabe stellt ein geeigneteres Maß für die Schadensträchtigkeit dar und ermöglicht direkte Vergleiche unabhängig von der verwendeten Estrichart. Für alle getesteten Estriche konnte eine Wasserabgabe von ca. 8-10 g/m²/Tag als Belegreifegrenzwert bestimmt werden.