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Ti-6Al-4V alloy is intensively used in the aerospace industry because of its high specific strength. However, the application of Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) Ti-6Al-4V alloy for structurally critical load-bearing components is limited. One of the main limiting factors affecting the structural integrity, are manufacturing defects. Additionally, the high cooling rates associated with LPBF process result in the formation of large residual stress (RS) with complex fields. Such RS can cause cracking and geometrical distortions of the part even right after production. Also, the microstructure of LPBF Ti-6Al-4V in the as-built condition is significantly different from that of the conventionally produced alloy. All these factors affect the mechanical behavior of the material. Therefore, to improve the material performance it is important to evaluate the individual effect of RS, defects, and microstructure on fatigue life. To this aim Ti-6Al-4V LPBF material in as-built condition and subjected to different post-processing, including two heat treatments (for stress relief and microstructural modification) and Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP, for densification), were investigated.
Prior to fatigue tests at elevated temperature, the microstructure, the mesostructure, and subsurface RS on the fatigue samples were investigated. It was found that the fatigue performance of HIPped samples is similar to that of conventionally produced Ti-6Al-4V. The tensile RS found at the surface of as-built samples decreased the fatigue life compared to heat-treated samples. Additionally, the modification of the microstructure (by heat treatment) did not affect the fatigue performance in the regime of mostly elastic strain. This shows that in the absence of tensile RS the manufacturing defects solely control the failure of LPBF components and densification has the strongest effect on the improvement of the mechanical performance.
The underlying cause of mechanical anisotropy in additively manufactured (AM) parts is not yet fully understood and has been attributed to several different factors like microstructural defects, residual stresses, melt pool boundaries, crystallographic and morphological textures. To better understand the main contributing factor to the mechanical anisotropy of AM stainless steel 316L, bulk specimens were fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Tensile specimens were machined from these AM bulk materials for three different inclinations: 0◦, 45◦, and 90◦ relative to the build plate. Dynamic Young’s modulus measurements and tensile tests were used to determine the mechanical anisotropy. Some tensile specimens were also subjected to residual stress measurement via neutron diffraction, porosity determination with X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT), and texture analysis with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). These investigations revealed that the specimens exhibited near full density and the detected defects were spherical. Furthermore, the residual stresses in the loading direction were between −74 ± 24 MPa and 137 ± 20 MPa, and the EBSD measurements showed a preferential ⟨110⟩ orientation parallel to the build direction. A crystal plasticity model was used to analyze the elastic anisotropy and the anisotropic yield behavior of the AM specimens, and it was able to capture and predict the experimental behavior accurately. Overall, it was shown that the mechanical anisotropy of the tested specimens was mainly influenced by the crystallographic texture.
Manufacturing defects, high residual stress (RS), and microstructures affect the structural integrity of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) Ti-6Al-4V. In this study, the individual effect of these factors on fatigue performance at elevated temperature (300 °C) was evaluated. Material in as-built condition and subjected to post-processing, including two heat treatments and hot isostatic pressing, was investigated. It was found that in the absence of tensile RS, the fatigue life at elevated temperature is primary controlled by the defects; and densification has a much stronger effect than the considered heat treatments on the improvement of the mechanical performance.
This study reports on the stress relaxation potential of stress-relieving heat treatments for laser powder bed fused 316L. The residual stress is monitored non-destructively using neutron diffraction before and after the heat treatment. Moreover, the evolution of the microstructure is analysed using scanning electron microscopy. The results show, that a strong relaxation of the residual stress is obtained when applying a heat treatment temperature at 900°C. However, the loss of the cellular substructure needs to be considered when applying this heat treatment strategy.
The determination of residual stresses becomes more complicated with increasing complexity of the structures investigated. Additive manufacturing techniques generally allow the production of ‘lattice structures’ without any additional manufacturing step. These lattice structures consist of thin struts and are thus susceptible to internal stress-induced distortion and even cracks. In most cases, internal stresses remain locked in the structures as residual stress.
The determination of the residual stress in lattice structures through nondestructive neutron diffraction is described in this work. It is shown how two difficulties can be overcome: (a) the correct alignment of the lattice structures within the neutron beam and (b) the correct determination of the residual stress field in a representative part of the structure. The magnitude and the direction of residual stress are discussed. The residual stress in the strut was found to be uniaxial and to follow the orientation of the strut, while the residual stress in the knots was more hydrostatic. Additionally, it is shown that strain measurements in at least seven independent directions are necessary for the estimation of the principal stress directions. The measurement directions should be chosen according to the sample geometry and an informed choice on the possible strain field. If the most prominent direction is not measured, the error in the calculated stress magnitude increases considerably.