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Organisationseinheit der BAM
- 7 Bauwerkssicherheit (4) (entfernen)
Die Korrosionsbeständigkeit und die Dauerhaftigkeit von Zink und Zinküberzügen an der Atmosphäre sind direkt mit der Bildungs- und Auflösungskinetik von schützenden Deckschichten aus festhaftenden Korrosionsprodukten verknüpft. Bei einem optimalen Zusammenwirken und einer günstigen Abfolge von atmosphärischen Einflussfaktoren bilden sich gut schützende, bei Feuchtigkeitszutritt nahezu unlösliche Deckschichten aus. Art und Eigenschaften der gebildeten Deckschichten hängen dabei insbesondere von den Luftinhaltsstoffen der Einsatzumgebung sowie von spezifischen Temperatur-Feuchte-Zyklen ab. Dabei besteht das Problem, dass sich die klimatischen Bedingungen und infolge auch die Deckschichtbildungsreaktionen bei Zink an der Atmosphäre im Laufe der letzten Jahrzehnte stark geändert haben.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die systematische Untersuchung und Beschreibung von Korrosions- und Deckschichtbildungsvorgängen bei Reinzink unter den aktuell in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland vorherrschenden klimatischen Bedingungen. Die Untersuchungen zielen in ihrer Gesamtheit auf das Hinterfragen aktueller und die Etablierung neuer Betrachtungsweisen zur Deckschichtbildung bei Reinzink unter atmosphärischen Korrosionsbedingungen ab und sollen damit einen wesentlichen Beitrag für das Verständnis des Korrosionsschutzes durch Zink und Zinküberzüge liefern. Dabei wurde der Fokus insbesondere auf das Anfangsstadium der Deckschichtbildung gelegt. Eine systematische Untersuchung dieses Zeitraums, der von sehr reaktiven Deckschichten geprägt ist, wurde erst durch den gezielten Einsatz gelartiger Elektrolyte ermöglicht.
The current practice of operating and maintaining deteriorating structural systems ensures acceptable levels of structural reliability, but it is not clear how efficient it is. Changing the current prescriptive approach to a risk-based approach has great potential to enable a more efficient management of such systems. Risk-based optimization of operation and maintenance strategies identifies the strategy that optimally balances the cost for controlling deterioration in a structural system with the achieved risk reduction. Inspections and monitoring are essential parts of operation and maintenance strategies. They are typically performed to reduce the uncertainty in the structural condition and inform decisions on future operation and maintenance actions. In risk-based optimization of operation and maintenance strategies, Bayesian updating is used to include information contained in inspection and monitoring data in the prediction of the structural reliability. All computations need to be repeated many times for different potential inspection and monitoring outcomes. This motivates the development of robust and efficient approaches to this computationally challenging task.
The reliability of deteriorating structural systems is time-variant because the loads on them and their capacities change with time. In most practical applications, the reliability analysis of deteriorating structural systems can be approached by dividing their lifetime into discrete time intervals. The time-variant reliability problem can then be represented by a series of time-invariant reliability problems. Using this methodology as a starting point, this thesis proposes a novel approach to compute the time-variant reliability of deteriorating structural systems for which inspection and monitoring data are available. The problem is formulated in a nested way in which the prediction of the structural condition is separated from the computation of the structural reliability conditional on the structural condition. Information on the structural condition provided by inspections and monitoring is included in the reliability assessment through Bayesian updating of the system deterioration model employed to predict the structural condition. The updated system reliability is obtained by coupling the updated deterioration model with a probabilistic structural model utilized to calculate the failure probability conditional on the structural condition. This approach is the first main outcome of this thesis and termed nested reliability analysis (NRA) approach. It is demonstrated in two numerical examples considering inspected and monitored steel structures subject to high-cycle fatigue.
An alternative – recently developed – approach, which also follows the strategy of discretizing time, describes deteriorating structural systems with hierarchical dynamic Bayesian networks (DBN). DBN combined with approximate or exact inference algorithms also enable the computation of the time-variant reliability of deteriorating structural systems conditional on information provided by inspection and monitoring data. In this thesis – as a proof of concept – a software prototype is developed based on the DBN approach, which can be used to assess the reliability of a corroding concrete box girder for which half-cell potential measurements are available. This is the second main outcome of this thesis.
Both approaches presented in this thesis enable an integral reliability analysis of inspected and monitored structures that accounts for system effects arising from (a) the correlation among deterioration states of different structural elements, (b) the interaction between element deterioration and system failure, and (c) the indirect information gained on the condition of all unobserved structural elements from inspecting or monitoring the condition of some structural elements. Thus, both approaches enable a systemwide risk-based optimization of operation and maintenance strategies for deteriorating structural systems.
The NRA approach can be implemented relatively easily with subset simulation, which is a sequential Monte Carlo method suitable for estimating rare event probabilities. Subset simulation is robust and considerably more efficient than crude Monte Carlo simulation. It is, however, still sampling-based and its efficiency is thus a function of the number of inspection and monitoring outcomes, as well as the value of the simulated event probabilities. The current implementation of the NRA approach performs separate subset simulation runs to estimate the reliability at different points in time. The efficiency of the NRA approach with subset simulation can be significantly improved by exploiting the fact that failure events in different years are nested. The lifetime reliability of deteriorating structural systems can thus be computed in reverse chronological order in a single subset simulation run.
The implementation of the DBN approach is much more demanding than the implementation of the NRA approach but it has two main advantages. Firstly, the graphical format of the DBN facilitates the presentation of the model and the underlying assumptions to stakeholders who are not experts in reliability analysis. Secondly, it can be combined with exact inference algorithms. In this case, its efficiency neither depends on the number of inspection and monitoring outcomes, nor on the value of the event probabilities to be calculated. However, in contrast to the NRA approach with subset simulation, the DBN approach with exact inference imposes restrictions on the number of random variables and the dependence structure that can be implemented in the model.
Polyaniline/Silicon Dioxide Composite-Based Coating for Corrosion Protection in Geothermal Systems
(2020)
Geothermal energy is one of the cleanest renewable alternatives to reduce the dependency on fossil fuel [1, 2]. Despite its promising future, its implementation faces various challenges, one of them being corrosion processes. To implement this energy, hot fluids are pumped from a geothermal well. These hot fluids originate from deep within the earth, so consist of different ionic species and gases in a wide range of temperatures, which lead to their corrosive nature. In terms of geothermal energy resources, Indonesia is at the forefront, with the highest preserved geothermal energy in the world of about 29 GWe and 312 potential geothermal locations [3]. Geothermal wells in Sibayak (North Sumatera), Indonesia, belong to young stratovolcanoes and have operating temperatures varying from 36 °C at the near ground surface to 310 °C at the bottom of the well, which is liquid-dominated with acidic and saline properties [4, 5]. Therefore, this geothermal fluid creates an aggressive environment that is conducive to corrosion of the powerplant infrastructure.
Parts of the geothermal powerplant infrastructure, such as pipelines and heat exchangers, are commonly made of metals, e.g. carbon steel and stainless steel. Consequently, they may undergo corrosion and scaling when exposed to the geothermal fluid, especially for carbon steel. To ensure the safety and longevity of a geothermal powerplant, the infrastructure is constructed of expensive corrosion resistant alloys [6–10], e.g., titanium and Ni-Cr based alloys, or carbon steel which needs to be protected by coatings or inhibitors.
To address the corrosion of carbon steel in the geothermal environment, artificial geothermal water was used to simulate a geothermal well in Sibayak, Indonesia, with pH 4 and a saline composition of 1,500 mg/l Cl-, 20 mg/l SO42-, 15 mg/l HCO3-, 200 mg/l Ca2+, 250 mg/l K+, and 600 mg/l Na+. Carbon steel underwent the most severe corrosion at 150°C in an oxygen-containing solution with a corrosion rate of 0.34 mm/year, which is approximately ten times higher than that in the absence of dissolved oxygen. In all conditions, pitting corrosion was observed, which necessitate a protection strategy on carbon steel. In order to promote a cost effective and locally available option, this work focused on an easily applicable coating which utilized local resources.
Toward developing such protective coating based on the locally available resources in Indonesia which can yield good corrosion resistance and thermal stability in geothermal environment, two additional components, i.e. polyaniline (PANI) and silicon dioxide, were used to modify an alkyd-based commercial coating. The selection of the alkyd-based coating as a matrix focused on the industrial convenience basis, where the coating application procedure should be simple and easy to apply within reasonable costs. The alkyd-based coating underwent severe blistering when exposed to the artificial geothermal water at 70 and 150°C due to the reaction between CaCO3 (as one of its components) and the artificial geothermal water, as well as a possible alkyd hydrolysis in the initial stage of exposure. In the oxygen-free solution, the degradation was controlled by chemical and thermal reactions, whereas in the aerated condition, oxidization at the coating surface further accelerated polymer degradation.
PANI was chosen as one of the anticorrosion pigments which was widely developed over the past decades. To investigate the interaction between PANI and the artificial geothermal water, PANI film was electrochemically deposited on the carbon steel surface and exposed to the artificial geothermal water. Electrochemically synthesized oxalate-doped PANI was protective against corrosion of carbon steel in artificial geothermal water at room temperature. The mechanism involved an exchange of electroactive species within the coating layer, as confirmed by electrochemical impedance spectra. Interaction of ionic species, such as Cl-, Na+, Ca2+ from the artificial geothermal water, with the outer layer of PANI is suggested both at 25°C and 150°C, based on the EDX spectra of the coating surface after exposure to the artificial geothermal water. Thus, the protection mechanism of PANI is not solely based on the physical barrier layer properties, but rather associated with the redox mediated properties of PANI, which selectively allow ionic species intrusion from the electrolyte into the PANI layer. Although PANI is a promising candidate as an anticorrosion coating, its morphological characterization reveals that electrochemically deposited PANI is not stable for an application at 150°C. Therefore, another approach was used to promote better protective behavior of PANI by dispersing chemically synthesized PANI in the alkyd-based coating.
To enhance the thermal stability of the coating, silicon dioxide (SiO2) was added, which was able to prolong the sustainability of coated metals until 28 days compared to the unmodified alkyd-based coating, which underwent a change in color to brown/orange only within 7 days of exposure. This improvement might be associated with the role of SiO2 to proportionate the thermal expansion coefficient of the coating system to be compatible with that of carbon steel. Although the coating is thermally enhanced, the electrolyte might still intrude through the coating resulting in the change of coating color after 28 days of exposure in the artificial geothermal water. When PANI was added, the coating system provided an active corrosion protection on the carbon steel surface. The chemical and morphological characterization of the PANI-alkyd and SiO2-alkyd coating system showed that coatings were improved, and no blisters were observed, albeit the degradation continued. Based on the results of exposure tests, the combined coating system was further investigated.
The combinational coating of PANI/SiO2-alkyd was used with 2 wt% of PANI and 15 wt% of SiO2. Electrochemical tests indicated cathodic protection at 150°C, as the Ecorr of PANI/SiO2 remained approximately 400 mV lower than the carbon steel potential. The impedance spectra of the combinational coating of PANI/SiO2 showed a continuous decrease in the absolute impedance value over time. A significant decrease was observed within one day of exposure, followed by a slow gradual decrease, which might be associated with water absorption in the coating. FTIR spectra revealed that several peaks associated with the organic portion of the coatings were reduced after the specimens were exposed for 6 months. However, the absorption peaks related to the inorganic portion of the coatings remained stable until 6 months. Morphological characterization of the combinational coating of PANI/SiO2 showed that there were no blisters or significant discoloration of coatings after long-term exposure for 6 months in artificial geothermal water at 150°C, indicating that the chemical degradation does not significantly affect the functionality of the coating. This clearly shows the durability of PANI/SiO2 coating in the geothermal condition, suggesting that this coating can be used for such geothermal application. However, further testing of this coating should be conducted in a real geothermal environment on-site to ensure safety and viability.
Kontinuumsmechanische Werkstoffmodelle zur numerischen Simulation von Stahlbauteilen im Brandfall
(2020)
Das nichtlineare und geschwindigkeitsabhängige1 Materialverhalten von Stahl wird besonders bei hohen Temperaturen sichtbar. Für Finite-Elemente-Simulationen von Stahlkonstruktionen im Brandfall sollte aus diesem Grund plastisches und geschwindigkeitsabhängiges Materialverhalten beschrieben werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit betrachtet unter diesem Aspekt bisherige Materialuntersuchungen und macht Vorschläge für dreidimensionale Materialmodelle mit entsprechenden Eigenschaften.
Es werden zunächst die phänomenologischen Eigenschaften von Baustahl anhand einer Literaturrecherche analysiert, wobei verstärkt auf Untersuchungen des Materialverhaltens bei Belastungen und Aufheizprozessen, wie sie im Brandfall zu erwarten sind, geachtet wird. Die für die Bemessung von Stahlkonstruktionen gebräuchliche Spannungsbeschreibung des EC 3-1-2 wird untersucht. Es werden ihre Stärken, aber auch die zur Entwicklung einer kontinuumsmechanischen Materialformulierung fehlenden Eigenschaften, aufgezeigt.
Ein nichtlinear-elastisches kontinuumsmechanisches Materialmodell der Deformationstheorie der Plastizität wird so angepasst, dass es die Spannungs-Dehnungslinien gemäß EC 3-1-2 im einachsigen Spannungszustand beschreibt.
Es wird des Weiteren ein thermoelastisch-viskoplastisches Modell vorgestellt, das in der Lage ist, Kriechen und Relaxation bei Aufheiz- und Abkühlprozessen zu beschreiben. Die Struktur dieses Materialmodells wird so gewählt, dass die Parameter an hierfür geeigneten Messergebnissen leicht identifiziert werden können. Der deviatorische Anteil des Modells besteht aus einem geschwindigkeitsunabhängigen, plastischen Anteil und einem geschwindigkeitsabhängigen, viskoelastischen Anteil. Der geschwindigkeitsunabhängige, plastische Anteil wurde als Differentialgleichung auf Grundlage der so genannten endochronen Plastizitätstheorie formuliert.
Die Parameter der Materialmodelle werden auf Grundlage der Messergebnisse stationärer Warmzugversuche an Baustahlproben identifiziert.
Sowohl das nichtlinear-elastische EC 3-1-2-Materialmodell als auch das thermoelastisch-viskoplastische Materialmodell mit den an Baustahl angepassten Materialparametern wird numerisch für die Verwendung mit Finite-Elemente-Programmen aufbereitet und als UMAT-Subroutine für ABAQUS in der Programmiersprache FORTRAN implementiert. Hierbei wird insbesondere auf die Bereitstellung der konsistenten Tangentenoperatoren Wert gelegt, um eine effiziente numerische Berechnung bei Verwendung der Materialmodelle zu ermöglichen.
Abschließend werden erste Simulationsrechnungen vorgestellt, um beispielhaft die Möglichkeiten der Anwendung der entwickelten und implementierten Materialmodelle für Simulationen von Stahlkonstruktionen im Brandfall aufzuzeigen.
Stichworte: Brandschutz, Stahl, Brandverhalten, Finite-Elemente-Methode, Materialmodell, Eurocode 3-1-2, UMAT
1Ist das Materialverhalten abhängig von der Prozessgeschwindigkeit, wird es als geschwindigkeitsabhängig bezeichnet. Prozesse können sowohl dehnungs- als auch spannungs- oder temperaturgesteuert sein. Die Begriffe zeitabhängig und zeitunabhängig werden hier vermieden, da diese in der Materialwissenschaft mit Alterungsprozessen (’aging’) in Verbindung gebracht werden.