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Zearalenone (ZEN) and its phase II sulfate and glucoside metabolites have been detected in food and feed commodities. After consumption, the conjugates can be hydrolyzed by the human intestinal microbiota leading to liberation of ZEN that implies an underestimation of the true ZEN exposure. To include ZEN conjugates in routine analysis, reliable standards are needed, which are currently not available. Thus, the aim of the present study was to develop a facilitated biosynthesis of ZEN-14-sulfate, ZEN-14-glucoside and ZEN-16-glucoside. A metabolite screening was conducted by adding ZEN to liquid fungi cultures of known ZEN conjugating Aspergillus and Rhizopus strains. Cultivation conditions and ZEN incubation time were varied. All media samples were analyzed for metabolite formation by HPLC-MS/MS. In addition, a consecutive biosynthesis was developed by using Fusarium graminearum for ZEN biosynthesis with subsequent conjugation of the toxin by utilizing Aspergillus and Rhizopus species. ZEN-14-sulfate (yield: 49%) is exclusively formed by Aspergillus oryzae. ZEN-14-glucoside (yield: 67%) and ZEN-16-glucoside (yield: 39%) are formed by Rhizopus oryzae and Rhizopus oligosporus, respectively. Purities of ≥73% ZEN-14-sulfate, ≥82% ZEN-14-glucoside and ≥50% ZEN-16-glucoside were obtained by 1H-NMR. In total, under optimized cultivation conditions, fungi can be easily utilized for a targeted and regioselective synthesis of ZEN conjugates.
Investigations of the metabolic pathway of mycotoxins by microsomal techniques are often laborious, causing an increasing demand for easy and rapid simulation methods. Thus, the non-microsomal oxidation technique of electrochemistry coupled online to mass spectrometry (EC/MS) was applied to simulate phase I biotransformation of the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA). The obtained transformation products were identified by high resolution mass spectrometry (FT-ICR) and HPLC-MS/MS. Transformation products (TPs) from EC/MS were compared to those of other oxidative methods such as Fenton-like and Ce(IV) reactions and metabolites derived from in vitro assays (human and rat liver microsomes). Electrochemical oxidization of ZEA was achieved by applying a potential between 0 and 2,500 mV vs. Pd/H2 using a flow-through cell with a boron-doped diamond working electrode. Several mono-hydroxylated TPs were generated by EC/MS and Fenton-like reaction, which could also be found in microsomal in vitro assays. EC and Ce(IV) led to the formation of structurally different ZEA dimers and dimeric quinones probably connected over covalent biaryl C-C and C-O-C bonds. Although the dimerization of phenolic compounds is often observed in natural processes, ZEA dimers have not yet been reported. This is the first report on the formation of stable ZEA dimers and their related quinones. The tested non-microsomal methods, in particular EC/MS, could be useful in order to predict the biotransformation products of mycotoxins, even in cases where one to one simulation is not always feasible.
Zearalenone and its cis-isomer, cis-zearalenone, are nonsteroidal mycotoxins that elicit an estrogenic response upon binding to the estrogen receptor. This study compares the estrogenicity of eleven congeners including novel metabolites as 15-OH-zearalenone, zearalenone-14-sulfate, α-cis-zearalenol and β-cis-zearalenol using the E-Screen assay. Overall, a change in the configuration from trans to cis retains significant estrogenic activity. In contrast, alterations of the aromatic moiety including hydroxylation and sulfation showed a markedly decreased estrogenicity when compared to zearalenone.
A novel method that optimizes the screening for antibody-secreting hapten-specific hybridoma cells by using flow cytometry is described. Cell clones specific for five different haptens were analyzed. We selectively double stained and analyzed fixed hybridoma cells with fluorophore-labeled haptens to demonstrate the target-selectivity, and with a fluorophore-labeled anti-mouse IgG antibody to characterize the level of surface expression of membrane-bound IgGs. ELISA measurements with the supernatants of the individual hybridoma clones revealed that antibodies from those cells, which showed the highest fluorescence intensities in the flow cytometric analysis, also displayed the highest affinities for the target antigens. The fluorescence intensity of antibody-producing cells corresponded well with the produced antibodies' affinities toward their respective antigens. Immunohistochemical staining verified the successful double labeling of the cells. Our method makes it possible to perform a high-throughput screening for hybridoma cells, which have both an adequate IgG production rate and a high target affinity.
Pure U-[13C18]-labelled cis-zearalenone (cis-ZEA) has been prepared and characterised as internal standard (ISTD) for a reliable quantification of cis-ZEA in contaminated food and feed products. The cis-isomer of the naturally trans-configurated Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone is often neglected. However, isomerisation easily occurs by exposure of ZEA to (UV-)light. Thus, the applicability of the new cis-ZEA ISTD was demonstrated in a long-term isomerisation study comparing naturally trans-ZEA-contaminated edible oil with spiked edible oil. To estimate the benefits of the newly prepared cis-ZEA ISTD, various approaches to quantify cis-ZEA by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) were compared. As a result, a significant bias was revealed if no appropriate cis-ZEA standards are used. Furthermore, the new ISTD was applied to the analysis of 15 edible oils by stable isotope dilution analysis in combination with HPLC-electrospray ionisation-MS/MS. One of the maize germ oils showed the presence of cis-ZEA above LOD (>0.3 µg/kg), whereas two out of 15 maize germ oils were found to be contaminated with trans-ZEA (range 17.0-31.0 µg/kg).
Deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and zearalenone (ZEN) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by several species of Fusarium fungi. These mycotoxins are often found together in a large variety of cereal-based foods, which are regulated by maximum content levels of DON and ZEN. To date, suitable certified reference materials (CRM) intended for quality control purposes are lacking for these Fusarium mycotoxins. In order to overcome this lack, the first CRM for the determination of DON, NIV and ZEN in naturally contaminated wheat flour (ERM®-BC600) was developed in the framework of a European Reference Materials (ERM®) project. This article describes and discusses the whole process of ERM®-BC600 development, including material preparation, homogeneity and stability studies, and an interlaboratory comparison study for certification. A total of 21 selected expert laboratories from different European countries with documented expertise in the field of mycotoxin analysis took part in the certification study using various gas and liquid chromatographic methods. The certified values and their corresponding expanded uncertainties (k=2) were assigned in full compliance with the requirements of ISO Guide 35 and are as follows: 102±11 µgkg-1 for DON, 1000±130 µgkg-1 for NIV and 90±8 µgkg-1 for ZEN.
The degradation and epimerization of ergot alkaloids (EAs) in rye flour were investigated after baking cookies and subsequently subjecting them to an in vitro digestion model. Different steps of digestion were analyzed using salivary, gastric, and duodenal juices. The degradation and bidirectional conversion of the toxicologically relevant (R)-epimers and the biologically inactive (S)-epimers for seven pairs of EAs were determined by a HPLC method coupled with fluorescence detection. Baking cookies resulted in degradation of EAs (2–30 %) and a shift in the epimeric ratio toward the (S)-epimer for all EAs. The applied digestion model led to a selective toxification of ergotamine and ergosine, two ergotamine-type EAs. The initial percentage of the toxic (R)-epimer in relation to the total toxin content was considerably increased after digestion of cookies. Ergotamine and ergosine increased from 32 to 51 % and 35 to 55 %, respectively. In contrast, EAs of the ergotoxine type (ergocornine, α- and β-ergocryptine, and ergocristine) showed an epimeric shift toward their biologically inactive (S)-epimers. Further experiments indicated that the selective epimerization of ergotamine EAs occurs in the duodenal juice only. These results demonstrate that toxification of EAs in the intestinal tract should be taken into consideration.
A novel, cost-efficient method for the analytical extraction of the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone (ZON) from edible oils by dynamic covalent hydrazine chemistry (DCHC) was developed and validated for its application with high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). ZON is extracted from the edible oil by hydrazone formation on a polymer resin functionalised with hydrazine groups and subsequently released by hydrolysis. Specifity and precision of this approach are superior to liquid partitioning or gel permeation chromatography (GPC). DCHC also extracts zearalanone (ZAN) but not α-/β-zearalenol or -zearalanol. The hydrodynamic properties of ZON, which were estimated using molecular simulation data, indicate that the compound is unaffected by nanofiltration through the resin pores and thus selectively extracted. The method's levels of detection and quantification are 10 and 30 µg/kg, using 0.2 g of sample. Linearity is given in the range of 10-20,000 µg/kg, the average recovery being 89%. Bias and relative standard deviations do not exceed 7%. In a sample survey of 44 commercial edible oils based on various agricultural commodities (maize, olives, nuts, seeds, etc.) ZON was detected in four maize oil samples, the average content in the positive samples being 99 µg/kg. The HPLC-FLD results were confirmed by HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry and compared to those obtained by a liquid partitioning based sample preparation procedure.
The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of zearalenone in wheat kernels contaminated with this mycotoxin. Kernels from a sample of a wheat harvest affected by Fusarium culmorum were sorted into six groups according to their visual attributes. Milled portions of these groups were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence and diode array detection. The clean-up was performed with an immunoaffinity column after methanol/water (4:1, v/v) extraction. The zearalenone content of the unsorted kernel fraction was 74 µg/kg. The group of healthy-looking kernels was contaminated with only 6 µg/kg of zearalenone. The groups of kernels that appeared shrunken and chalky white, damage routinely caused by Fusarium, were contaminated with 170 and 117 µg/kg, respectively. A remarkably high level of zearalenone contamination, 2,184 µg/kg, was observed for the group of reddish kernels. An association between the presence of the red pigment aurofusarin and high levels of zearalenone was found. Therefore, this pigment may be used as a marker of high zearalenone content.
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of ubiquitously occurring moulds. Through the consumption of contaminated foods, they can cause acute or chronic intoxications in humans. Here, it is demonstrated how covalent hydrazine chemistry can be used to improve the performance of instrumental methods for the quantification of trace level food mycotoxins. In the case of the Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid, pre-column derivatisation with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine resolved chromatographic issues due to the chemical properties of the analyte and allowed for its rapid, sensitive and selective quantification in cereals and beer by high performance liquid chromatography- ion-trap two stage mass spectrometry (HPLC-IT-MS2). Tenuazonic acid could be detected for the first time in beer and buckwheat flour. Although the encountered levels were too low to cause acute intoxications, the frequency of contamination indicated possible health risks due to chronic exposure. In a second scenario, dynamic covalent hydrazine chemistry (DCHC) was exploited for a novel extraction and cleanup method applicable to the Fusarium mycotoxin zearalenone occurring in edible oils. Zearalenone was extracted by hydrazone formation on a hydrazinefunctionalised polymer resin and subsequently released hydrolytically for quantification by HPLC-fluorescence detection (HPLC- FLD). The high selectivity of the approach allowed for the omission of MS detection and immunoaffinity cleanup. The DCHC method was superior to previously published methods in terms of handling efforts, cost, precision and selectivity and is well suited for the monitoring of the current European maximum level for zearalenone in refined maize oil. In the second part of the dissertation, possible degradation routes of Alternaria mycotoxins upon storage and bread baking are discussed. In the frame of a kinetic study, it was shown that tenuazonic acid is degraded by two parallel processes, deacetylation and epimerisation, when stored in aqueous solution (half-life at 25 °C ~ 74 days). The primary degradation product deacetyl tenuazonic acid was less stable than its parent compound and degraded rapidly in beverage matrices. In model baking experiments it was furthermore revealed that alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and altenuene are stable under typical baking conditions. A newly identified degradation route, which is based on a sequence of hydrolysis and decarboxylation, caused only minor substance losses (< 1 %). Still, the degradation products could be detected in commercial rusk and crispbread by HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS).