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Phase-segregated PEU exhibits two-way shape changes under various constant stresses. Most distinct actuation (expansion on cooling and contraction on heating) can be detected between +60 and -20 °C when the maximum stress applied during a thermo-mechanical pretreatment approached the point where deformation-induced crystallization of the PBA soft segment sets in. The driving forces for the strain-related two-way shape changes consist of PBA crystallization and PBA melting-induced entropy elasticity. At low constant stresses (<1.5 MPa), entropy elasticity also contributes to specimen expansion on cooling. The results of multiple- cycling experiments imply that PEU is an appropriate candidate for the fabrication of thermoresponsive actuators working under constant stress conditions.
The shape memory functionality of a segmented poly(ester urethane) and its hydrolytically aged specimens has been studied by cyclic thermo-mechanical measurements with an imposed strain of 100%. The shape memory effect was triggered by a melting transition in the soft segment phase. Aging was enforced by immersion in hot de-ionized water. In the course of the immersion the tensile properties (secant moduli, stress and strain at yield and break) were impaired by hydrolysis. Advanced specimen embrittlement finally led to rupture during the first thermo-mechanical cycle. This happened after 68 days of aging at 55 °C and correspondingly after 8 days at 80 °C. The residual strain after the first cycle, which was about 25%, increased significantly with aging time. Therefore, the total strain recoverability became ever smaller: aged specimens needed conditioning by at least two cycles for a full development of shape recoverability. Likewise the recovery force decreased continuously. Despite these degradation effects, it was observed that the shape fixity and the cycle-related shape recovery of appropriately conditioned specimens (number of cycles N > 2) remained on a constant high level (at round 100% and between 90% and 100%, respectively) throughout the whole aging period. These observations are discussed within the framework of a simplified model of the behavior of crystallizable shape memory polymers. The amorphous state of the polymer is described by the equation of the linear visco-elastic solid. As for the semi-crystalline state the material is assumed to react elastically with respect to deviations from the configuration, which was frozen up under constraint conditions. The curves of the dependence of the material behavior on aging time at 55 °C match perfectly those at 80 °C when the time axis is adjusted by a factor of 8.5, from which the apparent activation energy for hydrolytic aging in the amorphous state of 82 kJ mol-1 could be deduced.
In two hydrolytic degradation studies the tensile (mechanical) and functional (thermo-mechanical) properties of a hydrolysis-stabilized shape memory poly(ester urethane) and its non-stabilized analog were investigated. Hydrolytic degradation was enforced by specimen immersion in de-ionized water at 80 °C. Significant differences in the fundamental shape memory parameters were monitored as function of aging time for the stabilized and non-stabilized polymer. This included the ability to recover strain (shape recoverability) and stress (stress recoverability) on heating after shape programming. Hydrolysis-related mechanical and functional changes were correlated with morphological ones, detected by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The shape memory poly(ester urethane), which was protected by a carbodiimide-based hydrolysis stabilizer, revealed significantly improved resistance towards hydrolysis with respect to various mechanical and shape memory parameters.
The aim of this thesis was the development of switchable information carriers based on shape memory polymers (SMPs) and the investigation of their durability. Deployed as a new kind of security label, such technology may be an effective tool to prevent counterfeiting and product piracy.
Thermoplastic as well as thermoset SMPs turned out to be applicable as a specific substrate for the fabrication of switchable information carriers. In particular, a physically cross-linked and semi-crystalline poly(ester urethane) (PEU), and a chemically cross-linked epoxy-based polymer were investigated. Both SMPs were able to undergo distinct changes in shape upon triggering, which is commonly known as the shape memory effect (SME).
A key step for the fabrication of switchable information carriers was the development of a suitable technique for a surface-specific coloring of the polymeric base material. In particular, it was necessary to have a thin coat of paint in order to assure sufficient surface contrasts within the subsequently laser-engraved barcodes (e.g. quick response (QR) codes). In detail, coloring was conducted by diffusion of staining solutions, based on organic dyes, into the polymeric matrix. As a result of properly selected exposure times, homogenous layers of paint having thicknesses of about 100 μm, could be produced.
In order to obtain room temperature stable, temporary shapes with non-decipherable code information, various programming procedures were applied to the information carriers. These were either based on tensile or on compressive deformation. For instance, when using plane steel plates in the course of compressive deformation, code areas were randomly distorted. By contrast, selective distortions could be achieved using a steel ball type indenter. However, the triggering of the SME resulted in almost complete shape recoveries. As a result, the information carriers could reliably be switched back to readable states.
Before the developed information carriers can be brought onto the market, it is important to evaluate their durability against various environmental impacts. Artificial weathering was conducted exemplarily on blue and black colored QR code carriers based on PEU. Various scenarios were selected: exposure to UVA irradiation and aging in aqueous solution. In both cases, the durability was investigated at temperatures below and above the switching temperature of the employed SMP. It turned out, that the limiting factor for the usage of switchable information carriers was a lack of contrast and thus was dye-related. In the case of UV irradiation, the color of the dyes started fading, culminating in unreadable QR codes. For hydrolytic degradation, the non-colored code regions were stained in the course of aging. This originates from the fact that the organic dyes used for coloring were soluble in water. As a consequence, they were able to diffuse easily in and out of the swollen polymeric matrix. For both scenarios, aging at elevated temperature caused acceleration of the observed effects. However, the shape memory properties of the PEU were only slightly influenced by the applied aging scenarios.
Next, an additional thermo-responsive security feature was added to the information carriers. Therefore, thermochromic pigments (T-PIGs) were embedded into a PEU matrix. However, in contrast to the organic dyes, the size of the thermochromics microcapsules was too large to diffuse into the polymeric matrix. Thus, another procedure for a surface-specific coloring of the PEU was developed. This mainly included the preparation of a PEU-paste doped with T-PIG by solution mixing. The thermochromic paste was deposited by means of a solvent casting technique as thin layer atop the PEU plaque. After solvent evaporation, tightly connected PEU/PEU-T-PIG laminates were obtained. Beyond that, the layer thickness was adjustable by using a doctor blade for the paste deposition. Subsequent laser ablation finalized the QR code carriers. These were readable at room temperature, but unreadable above the color switching temperature of the employed T-PIGs due to a lack of contrast. Hence, the obtained multifunctional information carriers were characterized by distinct shape memory properties and tunable color switching performances. Furthermore, the combination of several T-PIGs having different colors and switching temperatures resulted in surfaces with multiple and unique temperature-dependent changes in color. Besides that, information carriers with temporarily concealed information could be obtained by covering the QR code with an additional layer doped with T-PIG.