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In this presentation, the results of the determination of the diffraction and single-crystal elastic constants of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 are presented. The analysis is based on high-energy synchrotron diffraction experiments performed at the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron. It is shown that the characteristic microstructure of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 impacts the elastic anisotropy and therefore the diffraction and single-crystal elastic constants. Finally, the consequences on the diffraction-based residual stress determination of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 are discussed.
Direct energy deposition additive manufacturing technologies utilizing an electric arc offer a great potential in generating large volume metal components. However, the selection of process parameters that yield the desired near net shape design as well as the requested mechanical component behavior is not a trivial task due to the complex relationship. Exemplarily for additive manufacturing of high-strength precipitation hardening AlMgSi-aluminum alloy this paper shows the application of a newly developed matching solid welding wire doped with TiB as grain refiner. The correlation between process parameters and component quality is examined analyzing the size and distribution of pores as well as the grain morphology. Furthermore, the influences of different post-weld heat treatments are evaluated to meet the reference mechanical properties of the corresponding wrought material. Finally, the digital integration of the entire additive manufacturing chain enables an overall traceability of the relevant process steps which is the basis for a reliable subsequent quality assessment.
Additive manufacturing (AM) processes enable the efficient production of advanced constructions. New developments in topology optimization are leading to weight-optimized designs of increasing complexity. Direct energy deposition processes (DED) such as wire and arc-based additive manufacturing are an important method of additive manufacturing. The wire filler metals enable a wide range of materials, while the arc process provides a high deposition rate compared to laser and powder-based processes. Combined with the use of high-strength steels, the thickness of walls or components can be significantly reduced in the context of lightweight construction, which results in significant savings in energy, costs, time and resources. Suitable high-strength steel filler metals are commercially available for DED-arc AM processes. However, guidelines and quantitative knowledge about welding stresses and cold cracking issues during component production and service are lacking. This limits the industrial application considerably. In a joint project of BAM and Chemnitz University of Technology, the main influences and complex interactions of material, production process, design and processing steps on the residual stress level are investigated. The aim is to develop processing recommendations and a cold cracking test for economical processing and stress-related design of high-strength steels with DED-arc. This study focuses on residual stress analysis by neutron diffraction (ND) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) on defined test specimens. The ND analysis were performed at the Paul Scherrer Institute- Villigen, Switzerland (PSI) and the XRD analysis at BAM. The study shows a quantitative and qualitative comparison of the residual stress magnitudes and distribution between the component bulk (ND) and surface (XRD) analyses. The ND analysis reveals that in DED-arc AM walls the residual stresses dominate in the direction of welding and are negligibly small in each case transverse to the direction of welding. The topology of the analyzed residual stresses shows almost identical residual stress maps compared to XRD. In addition, the residual stresses are significantly influenced by the solid phase transformation of the material due to low cooling times and less post heat treatment cycles of following AM layers in the area of the top layer.
Um Bauteile vor Verschleiß und Korrosion zu schützen werden Beschichtungen aus resistenteren Materialien aufgetragen. Hierzu zählen unter anderen die Legierungen auf Cobalt-Chrom Basis. Der diskrete Materialsprung ist jedoch unter thermischen und mechanischen Belastungen häufig Ursache für das Versagen der Beschichtung. In dieser Arbeit werden daher Materialgradierungen von verschiedenen Stahllegierungen zu einer Cobalt-Chrom Basislegierung untersucht. Die Ergebnissen werden dafür auch mit Resultaten zu vorangegangenen Untersuchungen verglichen. Kern der Arbeit bilden geätzte Schliffbilder der Materialpaarungen und Auswertungen mittels Farbeindringprüfung sowie die metallografische Bestimmung der Porosität. Ziel der Arbeit ist ein defektfreier Aufbau der funktional gradierten Materialpaarungen.
Structural alloys are largely employed in key industrial sectors and their demand is predicted to rise rapidly for the next decades. Most of these materials require a large amount of energy for extraction and manufacturing, which causes the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Therefore, strategies for improving the sustainability of structural metallic alloys are urgently needed.
Additive Manufacturing (AM), in particular Laser Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-LB/M), aims to be a sustainable manufacturing process, as it allows the build-up of complex geometry in near net-shape from 3D models, while minimizing material waste and the energy required for the process and post-process treatments.
Nevertheless, the application of additively manufactured parts in structural safety-relevant applications is still hindered by the poor fatigue performance. The cause of this has been mainly attributed to the presence of manufacturing defects and surface roughness. Therefore, a huge effort has been made to optimize the process parameters and to introduce post-process treatments to minimize the defect content. However, material flaws cannot be fully eliminated, but these can be considered in a damage tolerance framework for the prediction of the fatigue performance of additively manufactured metallic materials, which is essential for part design and qualification.
This work aims at presenting different modelling strategies for the prediction of the fatigue limit of AM metals. Simple empirical models and more complex models based on fatigue short crack propagation are proposed. The investigated material is an AlSi10Mg alloy fabricated by PBF-LB/M and subjected to two different low-temperature heat-treatments (265°C for 1 h and 300°C for 2h). The results show that the models can provide good approximation of the fatigue limits and help in the interpretation of the scatter of fatigue data.
State-of-the-art laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) machines allow pre-heating of the substrate plate to reduce stress and improve part quality. However, two major issues have been shown in the past: First, with increasing build height the apparent pre-heat temperature at the surface can deviate drastically from the nominal pre-heat temperature in the substrate plate. Second, even within a single layer the local surface pre-heat temperature can show large gradients due to thermal bottlenecks in the part geometry underneath the top surface. Both lead to unwanted changes in microstructure or defects in the final parts. In this study, a first attempt is taken to show the feasibility of pre-heating the top surface with the onboard laser beam to overcome the mentioned issues. A single layer of a group of three parts built from IN718 to a height of 33.5 mm is pre-heated in a commercially available PBF-LB/M machine to an average steady state surface temperature of 200 °C using the onboard laser beam. The parts are continuously heated, omitting powder deposition and melting step. Temperatures are measured by thermocouples underneath the surface. The experiments are supported by a thermal finite element (FE) model that predicts the temperature field in the parts. When heating the parts uniformly with the laser beam, differences in surface temperatures as large as 170 K are observed. To overcome this inhomogeneity, the heat flux supplied by the laser beam is modulated. An optimized, spatial heat flow distribution is provided by the thermal FE model and translated into a scan pattern that reproduces the optimized heat distribution on the PBF-LB/M machine by locally modulating hatch distance and scan velocity. This successfully reduces the differences in surface temperature to 20 K. Thermographic imaging shows that a homogeneous surface temperature can be achieved despite the localized heat input by the beam. The potential for industrial application of the optimized laser-heating technique is discussed.
Hydrogen and its derivatives (e.g. ammonia) are considered as a suitable energy carrier in the future supply of renewable energy. Hydrogen transportation systems require pipes, valves and fittings, among other components. In this sense, austenitic stainless steels are commonly used structural materials for pure hydrogen applications. Stable austenitic alloys, like AISI 316L, are often assumed to be practically unsusceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. At the same time, a number of studies show the influence of hydrogen even in 316L under some circumstances. Some other studies state that this embrittlement could be avoided by using steel grades with a higher nickel equivalent which contributes to a more stable austenitic phase. Nonetheless, 316L is widely used in hydrogen atmospheres since many years because of lower costs and positive practical experience. For these reasons, not only 316L but also 304 could be further utilized by identifying the exact constraints.
With increasing demand for components regarding hydrogen applications, additive manufacturing technologies are getting increasingly important complementary to conventional manufacturing. In the context of additive manufacturing, 316L is a common material as well. The manufacturing process offers great advantages due to higher freedoms in design and the possibility for customized components in small batches. For example, valves with improved flow characteristics and reduced component weight can be produced. Nevertheless, there is still lack of experience and experimental results concerning additively manufactured parts under hydrogen service. Therefore, the influence on the material properties for additively manufactured parts in hydrogen environments needs to be further investigated.
In the present work, slow strain rate testing (SSRT) has been applied using hollow specimens. This testing procedure allows to perform practicable and faster in-situ tests in comparison to tests in autoclaves and investigate the influence of hydrogen on the mechanical properties.
Conventional AISI 304 and 316L specimens as well as additively manufactured 316L specimens were tested at room temperature and a pressure of 200 bar. Elongation at fracture and relative reduction of area (RRA) have been used to evaluate the influence of hydrogen. It is shown that the influence of hydrogen is more pronounced in 304 than in 316L. Furthermore, potentially influencing factors such as surface roughness, microstructure and porosity are discussed.
Durch pulverbasiertes Directed-Energy Deposition lassen sich Gradierungen fertigen, um diskrete Materialübergänge zu vermeiden und die Lebensdauer von Hartschichten zu erhöhen. Die Kombination aus Stahl als Basiswerkstoff und einer verschleiß- und korrosionsbeständigen Co-Cr Legierung verspricht durch Vermeiden von Spannungskonzentrationen das Verhindern von Abplatzungen und Rissen in der Schutzschicht. Um die Qualität des gefertigten Bauteils zu beurteilen, liegen für solche Funktional Gradierten Materialien (FGM) wenig Erkenntnisse vor. Daher wird im Rahmen dieser Studie eine Methodik erarbeitet, um die relative Dichte eines Funktional Gradierten Materials auf Stahl und Co-Cr Basis mittels Maschinendaten zu bestimmen. Anschließend wird unter Einsatz eines künstlichen neuronalen Netzes anhand von Sensordaten die relative Dichte vorhergesagt. Das trainierte Netz erreicht eine Vorhersagegenauigkeiten von 99,83%. Abschließend wird eine Anwendung anhand von einem Demonstrator gezeigt.
Als Beispiel für moderne Produktion ist die additive Fertigung (ugs. „3D-Druck“) bei der Herstellung von hochkomplexen metallischen Bauteilen, bionisch inspiriertem Leichtbau oder Prototypen nicht mehr wegzudenken. Die Qualitätssicherung (QS) von Bauteilen für sicherheitskritische Anwendungen stellt jedoch noch eine Herausforderung dar. Die Additive Fertigung (AM) ist ein vergleichsweise junges und datenintensives Fertigungsverfahren. Daher ist es ideal geeignet, die neuen Werkzeuge einer digitalen Qualitätsinfrastruktur (QI) für die moderne Produktion zu erproben und weiterzuentwickeln.
Rapidly advancing technologies and progressive digitisation are posing challenges to the established quality infrastructure (QI). In response, the key stakeholders of the German QI established the initiative QI-Digital aimed at developing new solutions for modern quality assurance. One of the central use cases herein is quality assurance for additive manufacturing, in which a fully interlinked additive manufacturing process chain is established. The intention is to collect and process data from each production step, allowing for a comprehensive digital view of the physical material flow. Within this process chain, prototypes of digital QI tools like machine readable standards and digital quality certificates are being demonstrated, tested, and evolved. This is complemented by research on the process level, comprising the evaluation and refinement of methods for in-situ and ex-situ quality assurance, as well as algorithms for registration, reduction, and analysis of process data. This paper presents the status, goals, and vision for the QI-Digital use case additive manufacturing.
Rapidly advancing technologies and progressive digitisation are posing challenges to the established quality infrastructure (QI). In response, the key stakeholders of the German QI established the initiative QI-Digital aimed at developing new solutions for modern quality assurance. One of the central use cases herein is quality assurance for additive manufacturing, in which a fully interlinked additive manufacturing process chain is established. The intention is to collect and process data from each production step, allowing for a comprehensive digital view of the physical material flow. Within this process chain, prototypes of digital QI tools like machine readable standards and digital quality certificates are being demonstrated, tested, and evolved. This is complemented by research on the process level, comprising the evaluation and refinement of methods for in-situ and ex-situ quality assurance, as well as algorithms for registration, reduction, and analysis of process data. This paper presents the status, goals, and vision for the QI-Digital use case additive manufacturing.
For the wide acceptance of the use of additive manufacturing (AM), it is required to provide reliable testing methods to ensure the safety of the additively manufactured parts. A possible solution could be the deployment of in-situ monitoring during the build process. However, for laser powder bed fusion using metal powders (PBF-LB/M) only a few in-situ monitoring techniques are commercially available (optical tomography, melt pool monitoring), which have not been researched to an extent that allows to guarantee the adherence to strict quality and safety standards.
In this contribution, we present results of a study of PBF-LB/M printed parts made of the nickel-based superalloy Haynes 282. The formation of defects was provoked by local variations of the process parameters and monitored by thermography, optical tomography and melt pool monitoring. Afterwards, the defects were characterized by computed tomography (CT) to identify the detection limits of the used in-situ techniques.
The damage mechanisms of metallic components produced by process laser powder bed fusion differ significantly from those typically observed in conventionally manufactured variants of the same alloy. This is due to the unique microstructures of additively manufactured materials. Herein, the focus is on the study of the evolution of creep damage in stainless steel 316L specimens produced by laser powder bed fusion. X-ray computed tomography is used to unravel the influence of the process-specific microstructure from the influence of the initial void distribution on creep damage mechanisms. The void distribution of two specimens tested at 600 °C and 650 °C is analyzed before a creep test, after an interruption, and after fracture. The results indicate that the formation of damage is not connected to the initial void distribution. Instead, damage accumulation at grain boundaries resulting from intergranular cracking is observed.
For the wide acceptance of the use of additive manufacturing (AM), it is required to provide reliable testing methods to ensure the safety of the additively manufactured parts. A possible solution could be the deployment of in-situ monitoring during the build process. However, for laser powder bed fusion using metal powders (PBF-LB/M ) only a few in-situ monitoring techniques are commercially available (optical tomography, melt pool monitoring) but not researched to an extent that allows to guarantee the adherence to strict quality and safety standards.
In this contribution, we present results of a study of PBF-LB/M printed parts made of the nickel-based superalloy Haynes 282. The formation of defects was provoked by local variations of the process parameters and monitored by thermography, optical tomography and melt pool monitoring. Afterwards, the defects were characterized by computed tomography (CT) to identify the detection limits of the used in-situ techniques.
The damage mechanisms of metallic components produced by process laser powder bed fusion differ significantly from those typically observed in conventionally manufactured variants of the same alloy. This is due to the unique microstructures of additively manufactured materials. Herein, the focus is on the study of the evolution of creep damage in stainless steel 316L specimens produced by laser powder bed fusion. X-ray computed tomography is used to unravel the influence of the process-specific microstructure from the influence of the initial void distribution on creep damage mechanisms. The void distribution of two specimens tested at 600 °C and 650 °C is analyzed before a creep test, after an interruption, and after fracture. The results indicate that the formation of damage is not connected to the initial void distribution. Instead, damage accumulation at grain boundaries resulting from intergranular cracking is observed.
Additive Fertigungsverfahren, speziell das selektive Laserschmelzen sowie das Laserpulverauftragsschweißen, ermöglichen eine enorme Steigerung der Flexibilität und erlauben Kleinserienteile mit hoher Genauigkeit und geringen Kosten herzustellen.
Für den erfolgreichen wirtschaftlichen Einsatz dieser neuartigen Fertigungsverfahren spielt die Einhaltung des First-time-right-Prinzips eine entscheidende Rolle: Bauteile sollten bereits im ersten Versuch allen Anforderungen genügen. Aufgrund der jungen Geschichte dieses Fertigungszweigs und der damit einhergehenden fehlenden Erfahrungen und Richtlinien ist diese elementare Forderung heute nur in wenigen Fällen realisierbar. Die geforderten Qualitätsstandards können aktuell nur über experimentelle Iterationsschleifen eingehalten werden, sodass das große Potential einer flexiblen und schnellen Fertigung in erheblichem Maß reduziert wird. Die Komplexität der gefertigten Bauteile und die des Prozesses an sich lassen eine erfahrungsbasierte Vorhersage der Verzüge und Eigenspannungen kaum zu. Zudem werden auch in Zukunft Richtlinien und Normen nicht das komplette Anwendungsspektrum abbilden können. Die eigenspannungsbedingten Verzüge spielen demnach eine bedeutende Rolle und stellen zusammen mit dem Erreichen der Maßhaltigkeit eine entscheidende technologische Herausforderung beim Einsatz additiver Fertigungsverfahren dar. Die numerische Simulation ermöglicht die Vorhersage von Bauteilverzügen und –spannungen und kann durch virtuelle Abprüfung von Herstellstrategien die Anzahl von Experimente reduzieren. Bisherige numerische Betrachtungen von zusatzwerkstoffbasierten Verfahren, zu denen unter anderem das Laserpulverauftragschweißen (LPA) gehört, beschränkten sich primär auf akademische Beispiele mit geringer Komplexität. Für die Simulation von konkreten Anwendungsfällen auf Bauteilebene liegen bisher keine validierten, numerischen Methoden und Ansätze vor, die eine wirtschaftliche Anwendung der Schweißsimulation ermöglichen.
Dieses Projekt wird Simulationsmodelle zur numerischen Betrachtung komplexer additiv gefertigter Bauteile entwickeln. Dafür wird der Prozess in vereinfachten Simulationen nachgebildet und anhand von Experimenten validiert. Anschließend werden Methoden zur automatisierten Pfadgenerierung für komplexe Bauteile erprobt und in der Simulation implementiert. Schließlich werden zur Reduktion der Rechenzeit verschiedene Methoden zur Vereinfachung evaluiert und verglichen. Das Ziel ist die Steigerung der Verlässlichkeit in der Simulation, um prädiktive Aussagen über die Qualität additiv gefertigter Bauteile zu ermöglichen.
Influence of the WAAM process on residual stresses in high-strength steels (IIW-Doc. II-A-408-2022)
(2022)
High-strength fine-grain structeural steels have great potential for weight optimization of many modern engineering structures. Efficient manufacturing can be achieved here above all by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). First commercial high-strength welding consumables for WAAM are already available. However, due to a lack of knowledge and guidelines for the industry regarding welding residual stresses and component safety in manufacturing and operation, their application is still severely limited. Residual stresses play a crucial role here, as the sensitive microstructure of high-strength steels carries a high risk of cold cracking. For this reason, process- and material-related influences, as well as the design aspects on residual stress formation and the risk of cold cracking, are being investigated in a recent project (FOSTA-P1380/IGF21162BG). This high strength of the WAAM welding consumables is adjusted via a martensitic phase transformation. The volume expansion associated with martensite formation has a significant influence on residual stress evolution. However, this has not yet been investigated in relation to the processing of high-strength steels by WAAM. The aim of this work is to establish a WAAM cold crack test and easy-to-apply processing recommendations that will allow economical, expedient, and crack-resistant fabrication of high-strength steels, especially for SME. This paper focuses on the analysis of the effects of welding heat control and design of WAAM components on cooling conditions, microstructure, mechanical-technological properties and residual stresses. For this purpose, geometrically defined specimens (hollow cuboids) are welded fully automatically with a special, high-strength WAAM solid wire (yield strength >790 MPa). The heat control and specimen dimensions are varied within a statistical experimental design. The weld heat control is adjusted in such a way that the t8/5 cooling times are ensured within the recommended processing range (approx. 5–20 s). For this purpose, additional thermo-physical forming simulations using a dilatometer allowed the complex heat cycles to be reproduced and the resulting ultimate tensile strength of the weld metal to be determined. The WAAM welding of complex geometries with varying welding heat control and geometric factors or wall thicknesses not only has an effect on the cooling conditions, cooling times and microstructure, but also has a significant influence on the structural restraint conditions during welding. Hence, the welding experiments show significant effects of specimen scaling and heat input on the welding residual stresses, which may be detrimental regarding component properties and crack-critical tensile residual stresses. These complex interactions are analyzed within this investigation.
The formation of defects such as keyhole pores is a major challenge for the production of metal parts by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF). The LPBF process is characterized by a large number of influencing factors which can be hard to quantify. Machine Learning (ML) is a prominent tool to predict the outcome of complex processes on the basis of different sensor data. In this study, a ML model for defect prediction is created using thermographic image features as input data. As a reference, the porosity information calculated from an x-ray Micro Computed Tomography (µCT) scan of the produced specimen is used. Physical knowledge about the keyhole pore formation is incorporated into the model to increase the prediction accuracy. From the prediction result, the quality of the input data is evaluated and future demands on in-situ monitoring of LPBF processes are formulated.
In-situ Prozessüberwachung in der additiven Fertigung von Metallen (PBF-LB /M) mittels TT und ET
(2022)
Durch die additive Fertigung ergeben sich durch die nun mögliche wirtschaftliche Fertigung hochgradig individueller und komplexer metallischer Bauteile in kleinen Stückzahlen bis hinunter zum Einzelstück für viele Industriebereiche ganz neue Möglichkeiten.
Gleichzeitig entstehen jedoch neue Herausforderungen im Bereich der Qualitätssicherung, da sich auf statistischen Methoden beruhende Ansätze nicht anwenden lassen, ohne wiederum die Vorteile der Fertigung massiv einzuschränken.
Eine mögliche Lösung für dieses Problem liegt in der Anwendung verschiedener In-situ-Überwachungstechniken während des Bauprozesses. Jedoch sind nur wenige dieser Techniken kommerziell verfügbar und noch nicht so weit erforscht, dass die Einhaltung strenger Qualitäts- und Sicherheitsstandards gewährleistet werden kann. In diesem Beitrag stellen wir die Ergebnisse einer Studie über mittels L-PBF gefertigte Probekörper aus der Nickelbasis-Superlegierung Haynes 282 vor, bei denen die Bildung von Defekten durch lokale Variationen der Prozessparameter wie der Laserleistung provoziert wurde. Die Proben wurden in-situ mittels Thermographie, optischer Tomographie, Schmelzbadüberwachung und Wirbelstromprüfung sowie ex-situ mittels Computertomographie (CT) überwacht, mit dem Ziel, die Machbarkeit und die Aussichten der einzelnen Methoden für die zuverlässige Erkennung der Bildung relevanter Defekte zu bewerten.
Funktional gradierte Materialien auf Basis von Stellite und Stahl im Laserpulver-Auftragschweißen
(2022)
Das Hinzufügen von Stellite auf Stahl ist eine typische Vorgehensweise um Bauteile gegen Verschleiß und Korrosion zu schützen. Der Sprung in den Materialeigenschaften kann jedoch zu Rissen und somit zum Versagen der Beschichtung führen. Um die Lebensdauer von Beschichtungen zu erhöhen wird daher ein gradierter Übergang mit verschiedenen Materialpaarungen untersucht.
La tecnología de fabricación aditiva (AM) continúan progresando y permitiendo alcanzar diseños cada vez más complejos y optimizados. La industria química es uno de los sectores donde componentes AM han adquirido un gran interés. La falta hasta la fecha de una directiva europea que regule la inspección, certificación y aceptación de equipos sometidos a presión hace necesario progresar en esta línea. El objetivo que se persigue en este trabajo es el de desarrollar una metodología de diseño sobre componentes fabricados aditivamente basada en la estimación de vida a fatiga de las zonas más susceptibles de sufrir dicho tipo de fallo. El estudio comprende diversas facetas de análisis, simulaciones numéricas, análisis de la microestructura del material y una extensa campaña experimental. La evaluación de la integridad estructural se realiza aplicando mecánica de fractura. La historia térmica a lo largo del proceso de fabricación determina la microestructura del componente en cada región y, por ende, influye en las propiedades mecánicas en cada una. Se presentan los resultados preliminares de un proyecto de investigación en curso dirigido a la caracterización de propiedades mecánicas en recipientes de presión producidos por fusión láser en lecho de polvo (L-PBF, por sus siglas en inglés) de acero inoxidable 316L. Se detallan los resultados preliminares en términos de velocidad de crecimiento de grietas por fatiga (FCGR), y se comparan los resultados de probetas extraídas de diferentes regiones de los depósitos.
Laser powder-based directed energy deposition (DED-L) is a technology that offers the possibility for 3D material deposition over hundreds of layers and has thus the potential for application in additive manufacturing (AM). However, to achieve broad industrial application as AM technology, more data and knowledge about the fabricated materials regarding the achieved properties and their relationship to the manufacturing process and the resulting microstructure is still needed. In this work, we present data regarding the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of Ti-6Al-4V. The material was fabricated using an optimized DED-L process. It features a low defect population and excellent tensile properties. To assess its LCF behavior two conventionally manufactured variants of the same alloy featuring different microstructures were additionally tested. The strain-controlled LCF tests were carried out in fully reversed mode with 0.3 % to 1.0 % axial strain amplitude from room temperature up to 400°C. The LCF behavior and failure mechanisms are described. For characterization, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and micro-computed tomography (µCT) were used. The low defect population allows for a better understanding of the intrinsic material’s properties and enables a fairer comparison against the conventional variants. The fatigue lifetimes of the DED-L material are nearly independent of the test temperature. At elevated test temperatures, they are similar or higher than the lifetimes of the conventional counterparts. At room temperature, they are only surpassed by the lifetimes of one of them. The principal failure mechanism involves multiple crack initiation sites.
The influence of the inter-layer-time and the scanning velocity on the surface and bulk residual stress in laser powder bed fused 316L specimens was investigated. This study combines X-ray and neutron diffraction results with the thermal history of the specimens acquired through in-situ process monitoring. The process parameter variations were observed to directly influence the thermal history, which gave new insights in the assessment of the residual stress results.
The subsurface residual stress in laser powder bed fused 316L structures was analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and layer removal. The influence of varying structure thicknesses was investigated. In this study the importance of combining surface roughness measurements with XRD was shown. Moreover, a clear relation between the structure thickness and the subsurface residual stress profiles was observed.
In order to find a resource efficient approach for the fatigue lifetime prediction of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) processed AlSi10Mg material, results of tensile and fatigue tests were compared. The specimens were manufactured with three different L-PBF machines and studied in different heat treatment conditions (as-built, annealed, T6 heat treated). The investigations showed that the high attainable tensile strength properties after the manufacturing process are not beneficial in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime. In contrast, the applied heat treatments, which lead typically to a decrease of ultimate tensile strength, improved dramatically the fatigue behavior. Additionally, a clear correlation between the elongation at fracture and HCF resistance has been found for individual heat treatment conditions. This empiric relationship provides an estimation of the fatigue resistance in the presence of material defects and can be implemented in part and process approvals.
Design of freedom, performance improvement, cost reduction and lead time reduction are key targets when manufacturing parts in a layer-by-layer fashion using the laser powder bed fusion process (LPBF). Many research groups are focussed on improving the LPBF process to achieve the manufacturing of sound parts from a structural integrity perspective. In particular, the formation and distribution of residual stress (RS) remains a critical aspect of LPBF. The determination of the RS in LPBF benefits from the use of neutron diffraction (ND), as it allows the non-destructive mapping of the triaxial RS with a good spatial resolution. Two case studies are presented based on experiments carried out on the angular-dispersive neutron diffractometers Strain Analyser for Large Scale Engineering Applications (SALSA) (Institut Laue Langevin, Grenoble) and STRESS-Spec (FRM II, Garching). The RS in LPBF parts having a rectangular and more complex geometry (lattice structure) is analysed. The former example discusses the mapping of the RS in a rectangular body manufactured from stainless steel 316L. The manufacturing of these parts was monitored using an in-situ thermography set-up to link the RS to the thermal history. The latter discusses the RS in a lattice structure manufactured from the nickel base superalloy IN625. This geometry is challenging to characterise, and the use of a X-ray computed tomography twin is presented as tool to support the alignment of the ND experiment. The results from these case studies show a clear link between the thermal history and the RS magnitudes, as well as giving insights on the RS formation.
Infrared thermography is a technique that allows to measure the temperatures of objects by analyzing the intensity of the thermal emission without the need of direct contact with very high spatial and temporal resolution. As the temperature is a fundamental factor for the additive manufacturing processes of metals, infrared thermography can provide experimental data that can be used for the validation of simulations and improving the understanding of the processes as well as for in-situ process monitoring for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) for quality control.
In this talk we will provide an overview over the possibilities of state of the art thermographic in-situ monitoring systems for the DED-LB/M and PBF-LB/M processes and the challenges such as phase transitions and unknown emissivity values in respect to the determination of real temperatures. We define the requirements for different camera systems in various configurations and give examples on the selection of appropriate measurement parameters and data acquisition techniques as well as on techniques for data analysis and interpretation. Finally, we compare in-situ monitoring methods against post NDE methods by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of both.
This research was funded by BAM within the Focus Area Materials.
The triaxial distribution of the residual stress in laser powder bed fused austenitic steel 316L was determined by X-ray and neutron diffraction. The residual stress analysis results were linked to the thermal history of the specimens, which were manufactured with varying inter-layer-times and scanning velocities. A clear link between the in-process temperature of the specimens and the residual stress was found, based on in-situ monitoring data.
Additive manufacturing promises a high potential for the maritime sector. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) in particular offers the opportunity to produce large-volume maritime components like propeller hubs or blades without the need of a costly casting process. The post processing of such components usually generates a large amount of aluminum bronze grinding waste. The aim of the presented project is to develop a sustainable circular AM process chain for maritime components by recycling aluminum bronze grinding waste to be used as raw material to manufacture ship Propellers with a laser-powder DED process. In the present paper, grinding waste is investigated using a dynamic image Analysis system and compared to commercial DED powder. To be able to compare the material quality and to verify DED process parameters, semi-academic sample geometries are manufactured.
The laser powder bed fusion of 316L leads to the formation of large residual stress. In this presentation, different stress relieve treatments were employed to assess their potential to relax the residual stress. The residual stress was determined by X-ray and neutron diffraction. The results give insights on the range of relaxation one can obtain by employing low and high temperature heat treatments and relates the relaxation to changes in the microstructure.
Creep and creep damage behavior of stainless steel 316L manufactured by laser powder bed fusion
(2022)
This study presents a thorough characterization of the creep properties of austenitic stainless steel 316L produced by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF 316L) contributing to the sparse available data to date. Experimental results (mechanical tests, microscopy, X-ray computed tomography) concerning the creep deformation and damage mechanisms are presented and discussed. The tested LPBF material exhibits a low defect population, which allows for the isolation and improved understanding of the effect of other typical aspects of an LPBF microstructure on the creep behavior. As a benchmark to assess the material properties of the LPBF 316L, a conventionally manufactured variant of 316L was also tested. To characterize the creep properties, hot tensile tests and constant force creep tests at 600 °C and 650 °C are performed. The creep stress exponents of the LPBF material are smaller than that of the conventional variant. The primary and secondary creep stages and the times to rupture of the LPBF material are shorter than the hot rolled 316L. Overall the creep damage is more extensive in the LPBF material. The creep damage of the LPBF material is overall mainly intergranular. It is presumably caused and accelerated by both the appearance of precipitates at the grain boundaries and the unfavorable orientation of the grain boundaries. Neither the melt pool boundaries nor entrapped gas pores show a significant influence on the creep damage mechanism.
In order to find a resource efficient approach for the fatigue lifetime prediction of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) processed AlSi10Mg material, results of tensile and fatigue tests were compared. The specimens were manufactured with three different L-PBF machines and studied in different heat treatment conditions (as-built, annealed, T6 heat treated). The investigations showed that the high attainable tensile strength properties after the manufacturing process are not beneficial in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) regime. In contrast, the applied heat treatments, which lead typically to a decrease of ultimate tensile strength, improved dramatically the fatigue behavior. Additionally, a clear correlation between the elongation at fracture and HCF resistance has been found for individual heat treatment conditions. This empiric relationship provides an estimation of the fatigue resistance in the presence of material defects and can be implemented in part and process approvals.
Additively Manufactured (AM) parts are still far from being used in safety-relevant applications, mainly due to a lack of understanding of the feedstock-process-propertiesperformance relationship. This work aims at providing a characterization of the fatigue behavior of the additively manufactured AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel and a direct comparison with the fatigue performance of the wrought steel. A set of specimens has been produced by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) and a second set of specimens has been machined out of hot-rolled plates. The L-PBF material shows a higher fatigue limit and better finite life performance compared to the wrought material, accompanied by an extensive amount of cyclic softening.
Heterogene Fehlstellendichten und Mikrostrukturausbildungen sind große Heraus-forderungen für den Einsatz des pulverbettbasierten Laserstrahlschmelzens (L PBF) besonders für sicherheitskritische Bauteile. Unter der Vielzahl an Einflussfaktoren auf die Qualität und die mechanischen Eigenschaften von L PBF-Bauteilen hat die Zwischenlagenzeit (ILT) bisher wenig Beachtung gefunden. Sie nimmt ebenso wie die Bauteilgeometrie Einfluss auf die thermische Historie während der Fertigung. Ihr Einfluss auf die intrinsische Vorerwärmung ist in Kombination mit der Bauteilhöhe mittels thermografischer Temperaturmessung untersucht worden. Signifikante Unterschiede in der thermischen Historie konnten dabei mit variierenden Schmelzbaddimensionen, Korngrößen und Fehlstellendichten am Beispiel der austenitischen Stahllegierung AISI 316L in Zusammenhang gebracht werden.
High-strength fine-grained structural steels have great potential for weight-optimized, efficient structures in many modern steel applications. Further advances in efficiency can be achieved through additive manufacturing and bionic design. Commercial high-strength filler materials for wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) are already provided by the consumable producers. Today, application would be strictly limited due to absence of quantitative findings or any guidelines for the industry regarding welding-related stresses and component safety during manufacturing and service. Hence, process- and material-related influences and design-related restraint conditions associated with formation of residual stresses and cold cracking risk are investigated. The aim is the accessibility of special WAAM self-restraining cold cracking tests and easy applicable processing recommendations, enabling an economical, fit-for-purpose and crack-safe WAAM of high-strength steels. This first study focuses on determination of interactions between WAAM process parameters, resulting layer geometry, microstructure and residual stresses, analyzed via X-ray diffraction. Defined reference specimens are automated welded using a special WAAM solid wire (yield strength >820 MPa). Geometric properties can be specifically adjusted by wire feed and welding speed, but cannot be varied arbitrarily, since a high heat input causes local overheating, inadmissible changes of microstructure and mechanical properties, defects and comparable high tensile residual stresses.
High-strength fine-grained structural steels have great potential for weight-optimized, efficient structures in many modern steel applications. Further advances in efficiency can be achieved through additive manufacturing and bionic design. Commercial high-strength filler materials for wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) are already provided by the consumable producers. Today, application would be strictly limited due to absence of quantitative findings or any guidelines for the industry regarding welding-related stresses and component safety during manufacturing and service. Hence, process- and material-related influences and design-related restraint conditions associated with formation of residual stresses and cold cracking risk are investigated. The aim is the accessibility of special WAAM self-restraining cold cracking tests and easy applicable processing recommendations, enabling an economical, fit-for-purpose and crack-safe WAAM of high-strength steels. This first study focuses on determination of interactions between WAAM process parameters, resulting layer geometry, microstructure and residual stresses, analyzed via X-ray diffraction. Defined reference specimens are automated welded using a special WAAM solid wire (yield strength >820 MPa). Geometric properties can be specifically adjusted by wire feed and welding speed, but cannot be varied arbitrarily, since a high heat input causes local overheating, inadmissible changes of microstructure and mechanical properties, defects and comparable high tensile residual stresses.
The relaxation of macroscopic residual stresses in laser powder bed fused stainless steel 316L
(2021)
The processing of stainless steel 316L using the additive manufacturing process Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) can widen its field of application due to a strong increase in Yield strength, without making major compromises on the ductility nor its outstanding corrosion and oxidation properties. Furthermore, improved designs that either reduce the weight or optimise the function of a part can be obtained using LPBF. These benefits are however counterbalanced by the proneness of LPBF to inducing high Residual Stresses (RS) during manufacturing. The characterisation and monitoring of these RS are of paramount importance for the wider acceptance of the LPBF process. This study focuses on the relaxation of the initial macroscopic RS present in an LPBF 316L as-built prism that undergoes various routes of manufacturing steps to achieve different specimen geometries and stress relieving treatments. The RS are determined using Angle-Dispersive (AD) and Time-of-Flight (TOF) neutron diffraction. The results reveal high tensile RS close to the surfaces and compressive RS near the centre of the as-built parts. The reduction in size and change of geometry heavily impact the stress ranges of the remaining RS, with lower stress ranges in cylindrical shaped compared to rectangular shaped specimens. Also, the application of different stress relieving heat treatments showed that heat-treating temperatures above 800 °C are necessary to obtain a strong relaxation in LPBF 316L.
Das pulverbettbasierte selektive Laserstrahlschmelzen (engl. laser powder bed fusion, L-PBF) ist die am weitesten verbreitete additive Fertigungstechnologie für die Herstellung metallischer Komponenten. Unter der Vielzahl an Einflussfaktoren auf die Qualität und die mechanischen Eigenschaften von L-PBF-Bauteilen hat die Zwischenlagenzeit (engl. inter layer time, ILT) bisher kaum Beachtung in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur gefunden, obwohl sie je nach Bauraumausnutzungsgrad stark variieren kann. In diesem Vortrag werden Ergebnisse einer Studie präsentiert, die den Einfluss der ILT in Kombination mit der Bauteilhöhe und unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Volumenenergiedichten am Beispiel der austenitischen Stahllegierung AISI 316L untersucht. Die Fertigungsprozesse wurden in-situ mittels Thermographiekamera überwacht. Auf diese Weise konnten intrinsische Vorerwärmungstemperaturen während der Bauteilfertigung lagenweise extrahiert werden. Es wurden signifikante Effekte der ILT und der Bauteilhöhe auf Wärmeakkumulation, Mikrostruktur, Schmelzbadgeometrie und Härte festgestellt. Ferner konnte ein Anstieg von Defektdichten bei einem gegenseitigen Wechselspiel aus Bauteilhöhe und ILT aufgezeigt werden. Die Zwischenlagenzeit wurde somit als kritischer Faktor für die L-PBF-Fertigung von Realbauteilen identifiziert.
Einer der aussichtsreichsten Ansätze, die Qualität und Sicherheit der gefertigten Teile in der metallbasierten additiven Fertigung (AM) zu erhöhen und die Notwendigkeit aufwändiger und zeitintensiver, zerstörender oder zerstörungsfreier Prüfungen (ZfP) nach der Fertigung zu verringern, liegt in dem Einsatz von in-situ Prozessüberwachungstechniken. Viele wichtige Prozessgrößen bei der additiven Fertigung sind thermischer Natur, wie z.B. die Temperatur des Schmelzbades. Aufgrund der Zugänglichkeit zum Werkstück während des Bauprozesses bieten sich optische Verfahren zur Temperaturbestimmung an. Für die Thermografie und Optische Emissionsspektrometrie im IR-Bereich, welche für die in-situ Anwendung prinzipiell als geeignet angesehen werden können, gibt es allerdings noch wenig konkrete praktische Umsetzungen, da die Möglichkeiten und individuellen Grenzen dieser Methoden, angewendet auf AM, noch nicht ausreichend erforscht sind. Aus diesem Grund verfolgt die BAM mit dem Projekt „Process Monitoring of AM“ (ProMoAM) im Themenfeld Material das Ziel, Verfahren des Prozessmonitorings zur in-situ Bewertung der Qualität additiv gefertigter Metallbauteile weiterzuentwickeln.
Im Beitrag wird der Fokus auf eine Versuchsserie gelegt, bei der Aufbau von Probekörpern aus dem austenitischen Edelstahl 316L mittels Laser-Pulver-Auftragschweißen (LPA) durch od. mit Hilfe von IR-Spektrometrie und Thermografie in-situ überwacht wurde. Hierbei stellen u.a. die hohe Bandbreite der zu messenden Temperaturen, die Bestimmung der Emissivität und ihre Änderung bei Phasenübergängen des Metalls große experimentelle Herausforderungen dar, wobei jede Methode individuelle Vor- und Nachteile aufweist, welche verglichen werden.
The formation of high magnitude residual stresses is inherent in laser powder bed fused processed austenitic steel 316L. Post-process heat treatments to relieve these stresses are necessary. In this study, heat treatment temperatures of 450°C, 800°C and 900°C were applied in order to avoid excessive sensitization. This temperature range thereby encompassed the upper and lower bounds for stress relieving treatment of this material. The residual stresses were determined by neutron diffraction and the evolution of the microstructure was monitored using scanning electron microscopy and electron backscattered diffraction. The results show that a full relaxation of the residual stresses is achieved when applying 900°C for 1 hour, which seems to be closely related to the dissolution of the subgrain solidification cellular structure.
Due to the rapid thermal cycles involved in additive manufacturing of metals, high internal stresses and peculiar microstructures occur, which influence the parts mechanical properties. To systematically examine their formation, in-process measurements of the temperature are needed. Since the part emissivity is strongly inhomogeneous and rapidly changing in the process, the applicability of thermography for the determination of thermodynamic temperatures is limited. Measuring the thermal radiation in different wavelengths simultaneously, temperature and emissivity can be separated. Here, we present results of a preliminary study using multispectral thermography to obtain real temperatures and emissivities in directed energy deposition (DED) processes.
Due to the rapid thermal cycles involved in additive manufacturing of metals, high internal stresses and peculiar microstructures occur, which influence the parts mechanical properties. To systematically examine their formation, in-process measurements of the temperature are needed. Since the part emissivity is strongly inhomogeneous and rapidly changing in the process, the applicability of thermography for the determination of thermodynamic temperatures is limited. Measuring the thermal radiation in different wavelengths simultaneously, temperature and emissivity can be separated. Here, we present results of a preliminary study using multispectral thermography to obtain real temperatures and emissivities in directed energy deposition (DED) processes.
Additive manufacturing of metals offers the opportunity to build parts with a high degree of complexity without additional costs, opening a new space for design optimization. However, the processes are highly complex and due to the rapid thermal cycles involved, high internal stresses and peculiar microstructures occur, which influence the parts mechanical properties. To systematically examine the formation of internal stresses and the microstructure, in-process spatially resolved measurements of the part temperature are needed. If the emissivity of the inspected part is known, its thermodynamic temperature can be reconstructed by a suited radiometric model. However, in additive manufacturing of metals, the emissivity of the part surface is strongly inhomogeneous and rapidly changing due to variations of, e.g., the degree of oxidation, the material state and temperature. Thus, here, the applicability of thermography in the determination of thermodynamic temperatures is limited. However, measuring the process thermal radiation at different wavelengths simultaneously enables one to separate temperature and emissivity spatially resolved to obtain further insight into the process. Here, we present results of an initial study using multispectral thermography to obtain real temperatures and emissivities in the powderfree LMD process.
Damage tolerance counts as one of the most widespread approach to fatigue assessment and surely as one of the most promising in understanding the process-structure-property-performance relationships in additively manufactured metallic materials. Manufacturing defects, surface roughness, microstructural features, short and long crack fatigue propagation, residual stresses and applied loads can be taken into consideration in a fracture mechanics-based fatigue assessment. Many aspects are crucial to the reliable component life prediction. Among those a prominent role is played by an accurate measurement and modelling of the short crack fatigue behavior, and reliable statistical characterization of defects and residual stresses.
This work aims at addressing the issues related to both experimental testing, fatigue and fatigue crack propagation, and fracture mechanics-based modelling of fatigue lives. Examples will be provided on an additively manufactured AISI 316 L.
Diese Untersuchung beschäftigt sich mit der Charakterisierung von Kurzrisswachstum in mittels Laser-Pulverbett-Verschmelzen (LPBF - Laser Powder Bed Fusion) hergestelltem rostfreien austenitischen Stahl. Spezifischer wird die Ermittlung zyklischer R-Kurven untersucht. Diese beschreiben den Aufbau des Widerstands gegen Ermüdungsrisswachstum - d.h. des Schwellenwertes - aufgrund von Rissschließeffekten bei physikalisch kurzen Rissen. Mit Hilfe der zyklischen R-Kurven kann die Fähigkeit eines Bauteils, physikalisch kurze Risse zu arretieren, charakterisiert werden. Wir verfügen damit über eine Schnittstelle zwischen klassischer Ermüdung und Bruchmechanik. Das ist gerade auch für additiv gefertigte (AM – Additive Manufacturing) Materialien von Interesse. Diese weisen prozessintrinsische Defekte auf, die als Initiierungsstellen kurzer Ermüdungsrisse agieren. Im Rahmen der experimentellen Untersuchungen wurden zyklische R-Kurven für konventionellen und LPBF AISI-316L-Stahl ermittelt. Insbesondere wurde der Einfluss verschiedener Wärmebehandlungen (WB1: 450°C, WB2: 800°C und WB3: 900°C) auf das Wachstumsverhalten physikalisch kurzer Risse im LPBF-Material untersucht. Aufgrund hoher Eigenspannungen war die Ermittlung des Kurzrisswachstumsverhaltens bei WB1 nicht möglich. Für WB2 und WB3 ergaben sich sehr unterschiedliche zyklische R-Kurven. Untersuchungen der Eigenspannungen, der Bruchfläche (insbesondere der Rauheit) und der Mikrostruktur sollen die Ursachen für das unterschiedliche Verhalten erklären. Die Ergebnisse werden mit den Verhältnissen in konventionellem Material verglichen.
Thermography is one on the most promising techniques for in-situ monitoring of metal additive manufacturing processes. Especially in laser powder bed fusion processes, the high process dynamics and the strong focus of the laser beam cause a very complex thermal history within the produced specimens, such as multiple heating cycles within single layer expositions. This complicates data interpretation, e.g., in terms of cooling rates. A quantity that is easily calculated is the time a specific area of the specimen is at a temperature above a chosen threshold value (TOT). Here, we discuss variations occurring in time-over-threshold-maps during manufacturing of an almost defect free cuboid specimen.