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Organisationseinheit der BAM
Low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumables offer an innovative approach to increase the fatigue strength of welded high-strength steel structures. LTT welding consumables are characterized by a martensitic phase transformation near ambient temperature, which generates compressive residual stresses in the weld and heat affected zone (HAZ). The aim is to achieve a weld geometry, which generate high compressive residual stresses at the fatigue crack critical weld toe.
Longitudinal stiffeners were gas metal arc welded using a conventional welding consumable; the base material was a high strength steel S700M. A chromium-nickel alloyed LTT consumable was deposit subsequently just on front sides of the stiffeners. Different welding parameters led to varying cross sections of the weld. The residual stresses were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) in the crack critical HAZ.
When using only the conventional, the HAZ is characterized by high tensile residual stresses. The additional application of the LTT alloy leads to a significant reduction of the tensile residual stresses. Depending on the weld geometry, even compressive residual stresses can be observed at the weld toe
Low Transformation Temperature (LTT)-Schweißzusätze sind ein innovativer Ansatz, um Eigenspannungen in Schweißnähten zu reduzieren. Dieser Vortrag behandelt neben den Einfluss der LTT-Schweißzusätze auch deren Naht-Ausführungen. Die unterschiedlichen LTT-Nahtgeometrien haben einen signifikanten Einfluss auf den Eigenspannungsabbau in der Schweißnaht und der Wärmeeinflusszone (WEZ).
High-energy Synchrotron Study of the Stress-stain Behaviour of Hydrogen-charged High Strength Steel
(2012)
Offshore wind turbines continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate offshore foundations concepts like monopiles, tripods or jackets. These components are typically submerged arc welded (SAW) high-strength thick steel plates like the S420ML. During welding, the occurrence of delayed hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC) must be anticipated. HAC is a critical combination of the local hydrogen concentration within a susceptible microstructure under certain mechanical load, i.e., the occurring (welding) residual stresses. The welding sequence of the thick-walled plates complicate the residual stress distribution due to the necessary repeated thermal cycling, i.e., welding seam / layer deposition to fill the joint. For that purpose, SAW with two-wire-technique was used to weld a specially designed and prototype-like mock-up of a real component with a thickness of 50 mm, filled with 22 passes and a seam length of 1,000 mm. Additional welded stiffeners simulated the effect of a high restraint, to stimulate critical HAC conditions. The residual stresses were determined by a robot XRD goniometer. A least square regression analysis of the sin²ψ-law by using multiple ψ- and φ-tilts was applied. Tensile residual stresses up to the yield limit are found both in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone. Numerical modelling allowed the qualitative estimation of the hydrogen diffusion in the weld, enabling the determination of critical conditions for the formation of HAC. In a future step, a structural simulation will allow the assessment of the welding residual stresses and the comparison to the XRD-values.
Influence of Residual Stresses on Stress Relief Cracking of Thick Walled Creep Resistant Steel Welds
(2022)
Controlling the residual stress level during welding of creep-resistant Cr-Mo-V steels is crucial to avoid so called stress relief cracking (SRC) during post weld heat treatment (PWHT) of large-scale components. In the present study, a laboratory scale test specimen (400 mm x 400 mm x 25 mm) was used to simulate thick-walled component welds made of 13CrMoV9-10. The aim was to identify the level and distribution of residual stresses to evaluate the suitability of the specimen for laboratory based SRC testing. High restraint was ensured by the specimen geometry with a narrow welding gap in the center. This gap was filled by submerged arc welding in a multi-layer technique. Two specimens were welded with identical parameters and compared in the as-welded state and after PWHT (705 °C for 10 h). Neutron diffraction was used to determine the residual stresses in the weld metal, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the base material at different depths longitudinal, transverse, and normal to the welding direction. The experiments were performed on the instrument E3 of the research reactor BERII of HZB Berlin, Germany. Complementarily, laboratory X-ray diffraction was applied to characterize the surface residual stresses. In the welded state, especially in the weld metal and the adjacent HAZ, the residual stress can reach the yield strength of the untreated material. The highest levels occur in the longitudinal direction. The transverse and normal directions are characterized by residual stress of lower magnitude. As expected, the residual stress is almost completely relieved after PWHT.
Die Integrität von Leichtbaustrukturen aus hochfesten Stählen ist zunehmend durch die Bildung von Heißrissen gefährdet. Aktuell treten Erstarrungsrisse an Konstruktionsmerkmalen auf, obwohl heißrisssichere niedriglegierte Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffe als auch Schweißprozessbedingungen eingesetzt wurden. Werkstoff- und prozessseitig wurden diese Rissursachen bereits eingehend erforscht. Untersuchungen zum Aspekt der konstruktiv bedingten Heißrissvermeidung, aus denen sich Empfehlungen für ein beanspruchungsgerechtes Gestalten für KMU ableiten lassen, liegen bislang lückenhaft vor bzw. sind veraltet und für hochfeste Leichtbauten kaum zielführend. Konstruktive Gegenmaßnahmen zur Vermeidung von Erstarrungsrissen liegen oft nicht vor. Das Design und die konstruktiven Randbedingungen beeinflussen die Erstarrungsrisse entscheidend. Um eine schnelle Umsetzbarkeit der Resultate für KMU zu ermöglichen, soll eine einfache und kostengünstige Methodik zur Heißrissbewertung entwickelt werden. Gerade KMU haben einen hohen Nachholbedarf an heißrisssicheren und wirtschaftlichen Leichtbaulösungen. Konstrukteure und Anwender aus KMU würden durch fundierte Kenntnisse über mögliche erstarrungsrisskritische Beanspruchungszustände kostenintensive Qualitätsmängel vermeiden. Das Ziel ist es, Kenngrößen zu identifizieren, die während des Schweißens unter realitätsnahen Bedingungen erfasst werden können. Diese Parameter werden als Transfergrößen genutzt, um eine Heißrissbewertung eines geschweißten Bauteils zu ermöglichen. Anliegen des Vorhabens wird die Prüfung und Bewertung von typischen Beanspruchungszuständen beim Schweißen von Leichtbaustrukturen hinsichtlich ihrer Erstarrungsrissneigung sein. Durch Ableitung klassifizierter Gestaltungshinweise wird ein signifikanter Beitrag zur Steigerung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit insbesondere für KMU geliefert. Die Ergebnisse werden in Normen zur sicheren schweißtechnischen Fertigung von Leichtbaustrukturen aus hochfesten Stählen direkt einfließen.
Phase Transformation and Strain Evolution during Welding of Low Transformation Temperature Alloys
(2021)
In this work, the phase and strain formation in multipass welding of LTT gas metal arc welds were observed under realistic restraints by means of time resolved angular-dispersive synchrotron X-ray diffraction at the High Energy Materials Science beamline HEMS at PETRA III (DESY), Hamburg Germany. It was shown that the strain evolution during cooling correlates with the amount of martensite formed. Both, the strain of martensite and austenite are affected during phase transformation. Even though dilution processes limit the LTT effect in the root compared to the top layer, the strains are significantly reduced compared to the conventional weld metal. The observed effects are found for both Ni and Mn based LTT filler metals regardless of their respective Ms temperature.
Large scale hydrogen assisted cracking test for thick walled SAW joints for offshore applications
(2023)
Offshore wind turbines continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate offshore foundations concepts like monopiles, tripods or jackets. These components are typically submerged arc welded (SAW) high-strength thick steel plates like the S420ML. During welding, the occurrence of delayed hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC) must be anticipated. HAC is a critical combination of the local hydrogen concentration within a susceptible microstructure under certain mechanical load, i.e., the occurring (welding) residual stresses. The welding sequence of the thick-walled plates complicate the residual stress distribution due to the necessary repeated thermal cycling, i.e., welding seam / layer deposition to fill the joint. For that purpose, SAW with two-wire-technique was used to weld a specially designed and prototype-like mock-up of a real component with a thickness of 50 mm, filled more than 20 passes and a seam length of 1,000 mm. Additional welded stiffeners simulated the effect of a high restraint, to stimulate critical HAC conditions. The necessity of a minimum waiting time (MWT) before the NDT can be conducted (to exclude HAC) was critically verified by the application of ultrasonic testing of the welded joint at different time-steps of the NDT of 48 h after welding. The residual stresses were determined by a robot XRD goniometer. Tensile residual stresses up to the yield limit are found both in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone. Numerical modelling allowed the qualitative estimation of the hydrogen diffusion in the weld. A remarkable HAC occurrence was not identified and proves both, a certain resistance of the weld joint to HAC and the (questionable) duration of the MWT.
Die schädigende Wirkung von Wasserstoff auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften von Stählen ist zwar bekannt, aber noch immer nicht ausreichend erforscht. Die schnelle und sichere Markteinführung von Wasserstofftechnologien macht es erforderlich, dieses Thema genauer zu untersuchen. Im Allgemeinen wird dies oft als Wasserstoffversprödung bezeichnet. Daher ist es wünschenswert, eine Prüfmethode zu entwickeln, die auf einfache Weise die Materialeigenschaften unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre ermitteln kann. Derzeit werden mechanische Prüfungen unter Wasserstoffatmosphäre in Autoklaven durchgeführt. Für diese Technik ist eine aufwendige Hardware erforderlich, daher sind die Prüfungen teuer und die Prüfkapazitäten nur in geringem Umfang verfügbar. Die hier vorgestellte Prüfmethode verspricht einen zukunftsweisenden Ansatz zur Reduzierung von Kosten und Bearbeitungszeiten durch die Verwendung von Hohlkörpern, d.h. die Probe selbst stellt den Autoklav dar.
Die Wasserstoffinfrastruktur ist eine zentraler Bestandteil der erfolgreichen Umsetzung der wasserstoffbasierten Energiewende. Dabei bilden Ferngasleitungen quasi das "Rückgrat" der Transportinfrastruktur großer Gasmengen. Dabei müssen unter Umständen Reparaturen an den Pipelines durchgeführt werden. Dabei ist in der Erdgasinfrastruktur das Schweißen an in Betrieb befindlichen (d.h. von Gas durchflossenen) Pipelines Stand der Technik. Es ist jedoch vollkommen offen, inwieweit diese Technik auf die reine Wasserstoffpipelines übertragbar sind. Hierzu leistet das Projekt H2SuD wichtige Beiträge zur Aufklärung des Einfluss eines Reparaturschweißprozesses auf die Wasserstoffaufnahme und Degradation im Betrieb befindlicher H2 Gasleitungen.
Einfluss der Schweiß- und Prüfparameter bei der Heißrissbewertung hochfester Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe
(2023)
Die Heißrissneigung beim Schweißen kann mittels einer ganzen Reihe von Prüfverfahren ermittelt werden. Eine etablierte Methode ist die sogenannte Varestraint-Prüfung, welche auch an der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) als modifizierter Varestraint/Transvarestraint-Test (MVT) zum Einsatz kommt. Die Ergebnisse von Varestraint-Prüfungen hängen jedoch stets in unterschiedlichem Maße von der individuellen Prüfmaschinenauslegung und den verwendeten Prüfparametern ab. Dies kann zu einer uneinheitlichen Bewertung des Rissverhaltens führen, wenn die Risslänge konventionell als Kriterium für die Rissneigung herangezogen wird. Scheinbare Abhängigkeiten von Prozessparametern erschweren dann die Interpretation der Ergebnisse. Eine neuartige Bewertungsmethodik entkoppelt den Maschineneinfluss vom Materialverhalten und verwendet die Dehnrate als Risskriterium in Analogie zu Prokhorovs Heißrissmodell. Die neue Auswertung wird anhand einer Studie hochfester Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe vorgestellt, deren Rissverhalten in Abhängigkeit der chemischen Zusammensetzung und der Schweißparameter bewertet wird.
It was found that there is a systematic dependence of the crack growth on the welding parameters as well as on the load. Decreasing welding speeds with simultaneously higher heat input promote crack formation with increasing strain rate.
Based on the results, a new crack criterion was finally selected which allows an extended assessment of the material behavior during the MVT-test. The threshold introduced can quantify the dependencies of the crack formation on the welding and testing parameters, which could not be comprehensively described with the conventional evaluation. In principle, the evaluation routine can also be transferred to other Varestraint or externally loaded hot cracking tests.
Carbon arc-air gouging is a common technology when repairing defects in welded structures. Often this technique is applied in repeated cycles even on the same location of the joint. Due to the multiple heat input by gouging and subsequent re-welding, the residual stresses are strongly influenced. This can become crucial when microstructure and mechanical properties are adversely affected by multiple weld reparations. Knowledge about the relation of gouging and residual stresses is scarce but important when high strength steels, which are sensitive to residual stresses, are processed. The present study shows the effect of repair welding on a high strength steel structural element. The weld and the heat affected zone were subjected to multiple thermal cycles by gouging and subsequent repair welding. The residual stresses were determined by X-ray diffraction at different positions along the joint. The results showed that the residual stress level has increased by the repair cycles. This is most pronounced for the heat affected zone. Adapted welding procedures may prevent detrimental residual stress distributions.
Residual stresses and distortions in welded I-girders for steel construction are relevant when evaluating the stability of steel beams and column members. The application of high strength steels allows smaller wall thicknesses compared to conventional steels. Therefore, the risk of buckling has to be considered carefully. Due to the lack of knowledge concerning the residual stresses present after welding in high strength steel components conservative assumptions of their level and distribution is typically applied. In this study I-girders made of steels showing strengths of 355 MPa and 690 MPa were welded with varying heat input. Due to the dimension of the I-girders and the complex geometry the accessibility for residual stress measurement using X-ray diffraction was limited. Therefore, saw cutting accompanied by strain gauge measurement has been used to produce smaller sections appropriate to apply X-ray diffraction. The stress relaxation measured by strain gauges has been added to residual stresses determined by X-ray diffraction to obtain the original stress level and distribution before sectioning. The combination of both techniques can produce robust residual stress values. From practical point of view afford for strain gauge application can be limited to a number of measuring positions solely to record the global amount of stress relaxation. X-ray diffraction can be applied after sectioning to determine the residual stresses with sufficient spatial resolution.
Schweißeigenspannungen in vergüteten und thermomechanisch gewalzten hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen
(2014)
In-Situ of the Residual Stress Stability of Low Transformation Temperature (LTT)-Filler Materials
(2009)