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- Digital radiography (20) (entfernen)
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Speicherfoliensysteme werden seit den 80-iger Jahren in der Röntgendiagnostik
eingesetzt. Die technische Modifizierung der anfänglich im medizinischen Bereich
genutzten Speicherfoliensysteme ermöglichte die Einführung der Computer-Radiographie
(CR) in die Digitale Industrielle Röntgenprüfung mit dem Ziel des Filmersatzes. Die Speicherfolien
detektieren im Vergleich zum Röntgenfilm einen wesentlich größeren
Dosisbereich. Die daraus resultierende Dynamik befähigt die Speicherfoliensysteme zur
Abbildung eines großen Objektumfanges und verringert zugleich das Risiko einer Fehlbelichtung.
Vor allem die Möglichkeit, unmittelbar nach dem Belichten das virtuell im Speicherleuchtstoff
gespeicherte Durchstrahlungsbild auszulesen, in digitalisierter Form im PC
zu speichern und auf dem Bildschirm betrachten zu können, verdeutlicht die Vorteile von
CR Systemen beim Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung. Eine vollständige Ablösung
des Röntgenfilmes durch digitale Techniken ist jedoch erst dann zu erwarten, wenn es gelingt,
eine Bildqualität zu erreichen, die besser oder gleichwertig zu der vom jeweiligen
Röntgenfilmsystem geforderten ist. Mit diesem Ziel hat in den letzten Jahren eine technische
Weiterentwicklung von CR Systemen für den industriellen Einsatz stattgefunden. Im
gleichen Zeitraum wurden mehrere Standards zur Bewertung von CR Systemen und zu
deren richtigen Gebrauch in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung entwickelt.
Heutzutage ist die Herstellung von Durchstrahlungsbildern mit einer entsprechend gewünschten
Bildgüte sichergestellt, was in den letzten Jahren zum verstärkten Einsatz von
CR Systemen in der Durchstrahlungsprüfung führte.
Im Rahmen einer von der EU finanzierten Studie (Filmfree) wurden anfänglich systematische
Untersuchungen zu den Einsatzmöglichkeiten und grenzen von CR Systemen für die
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnähten in Schienen durchgeführt.
Anhand der Ergebnisse ließen sich optimale Bedingungen und Strategien für die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schienen ableiten, die anschließend im vor Ort Einsatz auf der
Teststrecke der Deutschen Bahn verifiziert wurden.
Im vorgestellten Beitrag werden die Vorteile des Einsatzes von CR Systemen bei der
Durchstrahlungsprüfung von aluminothermischen Schweißnahtverbindungen dargestellt
und deren Verwendung unter realen Verkehrsbedingungen im Schienenverkehr beschrieben.
Es wird gezeigt, wie unter den bestehenden Fahrbetriebsbedingungen die Durchstrahlungsprüfung
von Schweißungen in verlegten Schienen umgesetzt werden kann.
Different girth welds of tube sections have been inspected by elliptical projection technique
according to the EN 1435. The radiographic images were taken by using both film
radiography and computed radiography. The purpose of this study was to compare a C3
(AGFA D4) film system and a Duerr HDCR 35 NDT / HR IP imaging plate system with
respect to the exposure time, image quality and the detection of fine weld imperfections. The
results indicate to a dominant influence of the lead screens on the image contrast sensitivity if
doing the inspection according to the EN 14748 -2 for imaging plate exposures. New screen
combinations had been applied to make a computed radiograph of a testing class B quality
possible.
Computed Radiography exposure experiments on welded plate sections
were performed to demonstrate that the requirements for pressure vessels weld
inspection according to EN1435 or EN14784-2 class B can be achieved. The
representative comparative studies of the image qualities were performed with
standardized image quality indicators and image evaluation procedures on both film
and digital radiographs. Recommendations for weld inspections with CR systems
are drawn from the results. It is demonstrated that present CR systems can be used
for weld inspection and produce images with testing class B if the selected X-ray
tube voltage is reduced compared with the max. voltage of EN 14784-2 and set
equivalent to maximum X-ray voltage values for steel as defined in the radioscopic
standard EN 13068-3. The work was part of the European 'Filmfree' Project
promoted during the 6th framework.
X-ray topography is a well known imaging technique to characterise strain and extended defects in single crystals. Topographs are typically collected on X-ray films. On the one hand such photographic films show a limited dynamic range and the production of films will be discontinued step by step in the near future. On the other hand new imaging detectors improved for X-ray tomography become more and more attractive even for topography because of increasing resolution, dynamic range, speed and active area. In this paper we report about the upgrade of the TOPOTOMO beamline at the synchrotron light source ANKA, Research Centre Karlsruhe, with a high resolution digital camera for the topography use.
Similar to the success story of digital photography a major upheaval has been observed in digital industrial radiology. This paper is split into 3 parts:
Part 1: Film Replacement and Backscatter Imaging: Computed radiography with phosphor imaging plates substitutes film applications. Digital Detector Arrays enable an extraordinary increase of contrast sensitivity in comparison to film radiography. The increased sensitivity of digital detectors enables the efficient usage for dimensional measurements and functionality tests substituting manual maintenance. The digital measurement of wall thickness and corrosion status is state of the art in petrochemical industry. Photon counting and energy discriminating detectors are applied up to 300 Kv provide increased thickness dynamic and material discrimination by synchronously acquisition of images of the high and low energy part of the spectrum. X-ray back scatter techniques have been applied in safety and security relevant applications with single sided access of source and detector. First inspections of CFRP in aerospace industry were successfully conducted with newly designed back scatter cameras. Numeric modeling is used to design X-Ray optics and inspection scenarios as well as conducting RT training.
Part 2: Computed tomography (CT)
Part 3: Micro Radiography and Micro CT.
The new standard ISO 176362:2013 'NDT of welds: Radiographic testing - Part 2: X- and gamma ray techniques with digital detectors' describes a complex procedure for film replacement by phosphor imaging plates and digital detector arrays. RT modeling software should consider these detector types, X-ray film, and the standard requirements for image quality. Practitioners expect the same visibility of image quality indicators (IQI) in the simulated radiographs as in the experimental exposures. The proposed benchmark test is based on the comparison of experimental radiographs taken at BAM with modeled ones of participants. The experimental setup and the determination of the equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (EPS) as described in the procedure of ASTM E 746 are used for quantitative evaluation of the achievable contrast sensitivity for step hole IQIs as considered in Annex B of ISO 17636-2. System classification data for Computed Radiography (CR) and film systems will be provided by BAM according to ISO 116991 for selected film systems and according to ASTM E 2446 for selected CR systems. The classification of films and digital detectors is based on the measurement of the dose response function, the basic spatial resolution (SRb) of the image, and the measured image noise, which depends on the detector efficiency, the quantum statistics, and the detector fixed pattern noise.
This work presents an investigation of the accuracy of a radiographic simulation model applied to subsea pipeline inspections. Experimental measurements of a sample in a water tank are used to develop a set of calibrated simulation parameters for the modelling software aRTist. Image quality parameters such as signal-tonoise ratio, contrast and basic spatial resolution are compared with the aim of matching simulated values to experimental results. With this method signal-to-noise ratio was successfully matched while differences were still found in contrast-to-noise ratio comparisons. This means that measurements depending on absolute intensity are not accurate enough, however wall thickness measurements in tangential images, which are not based on absolute intensity, were found to produce similar results in simulated and experimental cases. The differences in contrast and intensity are thought to be due to detector backscatter and additional scatter from out-of-setup objects within the exposure bay, due to a lack of source collimation. These would affect the experimental results but were not included in the simulated setup. This was investigated by including different proportions of peripheral water and other objects in the modelled setup and examining the effect on Image quality parameters. Results show that this additional scatter has a significant impact on the radiograph, particularly on image contrast, and is therefore the likely cause of differences between experimental and simulated images. This implies that it will be very difficult to completely match simulated to experimental results, as including all possible scattering objects in the model would be very complex. An improvement could be made by using real subsea data to estimate this additional scattering, which could then be used to calibrate the model. However there would still be significant uncertainty in the ability of the model to accurately produce realistic intensity and contrast.
The quality of additively manufactured (AM) parts is determined by the applied process parameters used and the properties of the feedstock powder. The influence of inner gas pores in feedstock particles on the final AM product is a phenomenon which is difficult to investigate since very few non-destructive measurement techniques are accurate enough to resolve the micropores.
3D X-ray computed tomography (XCT) is increasingly applied during the process chain of AM parts as a non-destructive monitoring and quality control tool and it is able to detect most of the pores.
However, XCT is time-consuming and limited to small amounts of feedstock powder, typically a few milligrams. The aim of the presented approach is to investigate digital radiography of AM feedstock particles as a simple and fast quality check with high throughput. 2D digital radiographs were simulated in order to predict the visibility of pores inside metallic particles for different pore and particle diameters. An experimental validation was performed. It was demonstrated numerically and experimentally that typical gas pores above a certain size (here: 3 to 4.4 µm for the selected X-ray setup), which could be found in metallic microparticles, were reliably detected by digital radiography.
In this contribution, we present a dual high-energy X-ray imaging technique for cargo container inspection using the 'spectral high-energy X-ray attenuation method'. This method is based on attenuation of continuous highenergy spectra. The developed experimental technique consists of a betatron as high-energy (up to 7.5 MeV) X-ray source and a matrix detector with high spatial resolution (400 ìm) for digital X-ray imaging. In order to evaluate the material discrimination capability using dual high-energy X-ray imaging, a test specimen is proposed, comprising step wedges of different low and high atomic number (Z) materials. The selected X-ray spectra for the dual-energy experiments correspond to 3 MV and 7.5 MV acceleration potential of the betatron. We evaluated the ratio between low- and high-energy X-ray attenuation coefficients quantitatively based on simulated poly-energetic high-energy X-ray source spectra and the detector sensitivity using the 'analytical Radiographic Testing inspection simulation tool' (aRTist) developed at BAM. The simulated effective attenuation coefficients are compared with corresponding experimental results in order to establish a method for identification of low- and high-Z materials in the container. Finally, important applications of the proposed technique in the context of aviation security are discussed.
In order to enhance the supply chain security at airports, the German federal ministry of education and research has initiated the project ESECLOG (enhanced security in the air cargo chain) which has the goal to improve the threat detection accuracy using one-sided access methods. In this paper, we present a new X-ray backscatter technology for non-intrusive imaging of suspicious objects (mainly low-Z explosives) in luggage's and parcels with only a single-sided access. A key element in this technology is the X-ray backscatter camera embedded with a special twisted-slit collimator. The developed technology has efficiently resolved the problem related to the imaging of complex interior of the object by fixing source and object positions and changing only the scanning direction of the X-ray backscatter camera. Experiments were carried out on luggages and parcels packed with mock-up dangerous materials including liquid and solid explosive simulants. In addition, the quality of the X-ray backscatter image was enhanced by employing high-resolution digital detector arrays. Experimental results are discussed and the efficiency of the present technique to detect suspicious objects in luggages and parcels is demonstrated. At the end, important applications of the proposed backscatter imaging technology to the aviation security are presented.