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The EU F-Gas Regulation grants exceptions from the GWP-related placing on the market prohibition for stationary refrigeration equipment for applications below -50 °C. Nonetheless, non-flammable refrigerants, which can be used for that temperature range, become increasingly expensive and rare inside the EU due to the phase down of HFCs under the regulation. Flammable alternatives based on methane, ethane and ethylene are available, but are not viable for all applications due to their flammability. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for applications below -50 °C due to CO 2 ’s triple point at -56 °C. Nitrous oxide with a triple point at -92 °C seems to be an alternative. However, possible exothermal decomposition of N 2 O calls for additional measures in order to be able to operate such systems safely. Two low-temperature systems have been developed, built and successfully operated at evaporation temperatures down to - 80 °C with mixtures of N 2 O and CO 2 and different lubricants at ILK and Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences. The units achieved similar energy efficiency as the standard HFC-equipment used for freeze drying. Possible decomposition of N 2 O could successfully be supressed by various measures.
Industrial fire and explosion hazards due to accidents in fuel storage units have gained a considerable attention in recent years. Both, the regulatory bodies and scientific communities are heavily concerned about the proper safety measures to avoid such calamities in the future. This paper aims to bring some essentials related to the hazards that arose from recent fuel storage fire accidents occurring in Buncefield, UK (2005), Puerto Rico, USA (2009) and Sitapura, India (2009). The potential similarities behind occurrence of these accidents are studied. The applicability of various methods (models) and also computer simulations to estimate the safety distances according to the international standards for both explosion and fire hazard are verified. The overpressures caused by the Vapor Cloud Explosions (VCE) and radiation fluxes emitted by the fires are considered for respective explosion and fire hazard estimations. The prime focus is placed on the regulations laid down by the National Fire Protection Agency of the United States and the European Norms.