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Organisationseinheit der BAM
- 5 Werkstofftechnik (3)
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- 5.5 Materialmodellierung (2)
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- 9 Komponentensicherheit (1)
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- 9.4 Integrität von Schweißverbindungen (1)
The underlying cause of mechanical anisotropy in additively manufactured (AM) parts is not yet fully understood and has been attributed to several different factors like microstructural defects, residual stresses, melt pool boundaries, crystallographic and morphological textures. To better understand the main contributing factor to the mechanical anisotropy of AM stainless steel 316L, bulk specimens were fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Tensile specimens were machined from these AM bulk materials for three different inclinations: 0◦, 45◦, and 90◦ relative to the build plate. Dynamic Young’s modulus measurements and tensile tests were used to determine the mechanical anisotropy. Some tensile specimens were also subjected to residual stress measurement via neutron diffraction, porosity determination with X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT), and texture analysis with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). These investigations revealed that the specimens exhibited near full density and the detected defects were spherical. Furthermore, the residual stresses in the loading direction were between −74 ± 24 MPa and 137 ± 20 MPa, and the EBSD measurements showed a preferential ⟨110⟩ orientation parallel to the build direction. A crystal plasticity model was used to analyze the elastic anisotropy and the anisotropic yield behavior of the AM specimens, and it was able to capture and predict the experimental behavior accurately. Overall, it was shown that the mechanical anisotropy of the tested specimens was mainly influenced by the crystallographic texture.
Pore annihilation during hot isostatic pressing (HIP) was investigated in the single-crystal nickel-base superalloy CMSX-4 experimentally by interrupted HIP tests at 1288 °C/103 MPa. The kinetics of pore annihilation was determined by density measurement and quantitative metallography. Transmission electron microscopy of a HIPed specimen showed that the pores shrink via dislocation movement on octahedral glide planes. Theoretically pore closure under HIP condition was modelled by the finite element method using crystal plasticity and large strain theories. The modelling gives a similar kinetics of pore annihilation as observed experimentally, however somewhat higher annihilation rate.
The calculation of the glide force on a dislocation in finite elasticity requires a suitable description of the variation of the deformation due to dislocation motion. This is achieved in this paper by extending the linear Somigliana-type dislocation model to finite strains. The core is modeled by a strip of finite width where the displacement jump continuously decreases with the distance to the dislocation tip. In the case of finite transformations, this distance can be defined in the deformed or in the undeformed state. By defining it in the undeformed natural state of the crystal, we show that the work dissipated by friction in the core region only depends on the dislocation motion. Using the principle of virtual work, the equation of the dislocation motion and several alternative expressions for the glide force are derived. The obtained force may be interpreted as a generalization of Eshelby's configurational forces for a noncoherent singular surface. In the linear case, the glide force of Peach and Koehler as well as the well-known expression of the self-force due to De Wit and Koehler are retrieved.
The current lack of quantitative knowledge on processing-microstructure–property relationships is one of the major bottlenecks in today’s rapidly expanding field of additive manufacturing. This is centrally rooted in the nature of the processing, leading to complex microstructural features. Experimentally-guided modeling can offer reliable solutions for the safe application of additively manufactured materials. In this work, we combine a set of systematic experiments and modeling to address creep anisotropy and its correlation with microstructural characteristics in laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) additively manufactured Inconel-738LC (IN738LC). Three sample orientations (with the tensile axis parallel, perpendicular, and 45° tilted, relative to the building direction) are crept at 850 °C, accompanied by electron backscatter secondary diffraction (EBSD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations. A crystal plasticity (CP) model for Ni-base superalloys, capable of modeling different types of slip systems, is developed and combined with various polycrystalline representative volume elements (RVEs) built on the experimental measurements. Besides our experiments, we verify our modeling framework on electron beam powder bed fusion (PBF-EB/M) additively manufactured Inconel-738LC. The results of our simulations show that while the crystallographic texture alone cannot explain the observed creep anisotropy, the superlattice extrinsic stacking faults (SESF) and related microtwinning slip systems play major roles as active deformation mechanisms. We confirm this using TEM investigations, revealing evidence of SESFs in crept specimens. We also show that the elongated grain morphology can result in higher creep rates, especially in the specimens with a tilted tensile axis.
A crystallographic constitutive model is developed, which accounts for both rate-sensitive and rate-insensitive flow. Single-crystal plasticity and viscoplasticity are the limiting cases of the model, so that it properly reflects the material response over a wide temperature range. A non-linear dynamic recovery is included to properly describe ratchetting. We provide a robust integration scheme based on generalization of the return-mapping algorithm and of the procedure for active set search.
The implicit integration and consistent tangent are implemented through the UMAT subroutine in the ABAQUS finite element program. The capability of the model to account for both high and low strain rates is demonstrated in numerical examples. Finally, the stability of integration scheme and quadratic convergence of the global NewtonRaphson equilibrium iterations are demonstrated on the example of a notched bar under tension.
A computationally efficient solution scheme is presented for the mechanical problems whose formulations include the Kuhn–Tucker or Signorini–Fichera conditions. It is proposed to reformulate these problems replacing inequalities in these conditions by equations with respect to new unknowns. The solutions of the modified problems have simple physical meanings and determine uniquely the unknowns of the original problems. The approach avoids application of multi-valued operators (inclusions or inequalities) in formulation of the problems. Hence, the modified formulations are suitable for numerical analysis using established powerful mathematical methods and corresponding solvers developed for solving systems of non-linear equations.
To demonstrate the advantages of the proposed approach, it is applied for solving problems in two different areas: constitutive modeling of single-crystal plasticity and mixed boundary value problems of elastic contact mechanics with free boundaries. The original formulations of these problems contain respectively the Kuhn–Tucker and Signorini–Fichera conditions. A problem of the former area is integrated using an implicit integration scheme based on the return-mapping algorithm. The derived integration scheme is free of any update procedure for identification of active slip systems. A problem of the latter area is reduced to solution of non-linear integral boundary equations (NBIEs). Numerical examples demonstrate stability and efficiency of the solution procedures and reflect the mathematical similarities between the both non-linear problems.
Rapid solidification leads to unique microstructural features, where a less studied topic is the formation of various crystalline defects, including high dislocation densities, as well as gradients and splitting of the crystalline orientation. As these defects critically affect the material’s mechanical properties and performance features, it is important to understand the defect formation mechanisms, and how they depend on the solidification conditions and alloying. To illuminate the formation mechanisms of the rapid solidification induced crystalline defects, we conduct a multiscale modelling analysis consisting of bond-order potential-based molecular dynamics (MD), phase field crystal-based amplitude expansion simulations, and sequentially coupled phase field–crystal plasticity simulations. The resulting dislocation densities are quantified and compared to past experiments. The atomistic approaches (MD, PFC) can be used to calibrate continuum level crystal plasticity models, and the framework adds mechanistic insights arising from the multiscale analysis.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Transport phenomena in complex systems (part 2)’.