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Research and Development in Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering at BAM has de-veloped over more than two decades. Highlights of present research are ultrasound phase array probes, ground penetrating radar applications for the assessment of existing structures and Laser Induced Breakdown Spec-troscopy (LIBS) to determine which chemical elements on the surface of a specimen are. RFID sensor devel-opments for wireless moisture monitoring and data fusion for the combined analysis of sensor data are fast developing areas. In addition, a selection of application cases is briefly described.
This paper describes the investigations, carried out during the ongoing European Project WOLAXIM. It presents the development of the non-destructive testing system for hollow axle inspection. The phased array probe is designed, the inspection parameters are determined and the required test equipment is planned according to the specifications.
As a part of the probe design, a detailed model to calculate the sound field of the conical phased array is developed. With this model the optimal geometric parameters for bore diameters from 30mm up to 70mm are determined. The first design of a conical probe with forty-eight elements is realised. Based on this design a mock-up with ten elements is produced. The first practical tests with the calculated delay laws show high sensitivity for small test flaws and offer good agreement with the modelling results. The effectiveness as well as the sensitivity with a good signal to noise ratio is verified.
The parameters for a short inspection time less than five minutes per axle are determined. A raw scanning with 1.5° circumferential and 2mm axial resolution is feasible within two minutes. That is significantly faster than comparable mechanically rotated probe systems. The remaining three minutes are sufficient for the other steps in the inspection process. The required features will be fulfilled by the COMPAS® phased array device.
The feasibility of the ultrasonic system is shown. The specification and the theoretical probe design are complete and sufficient knowledge is present that the system will be viable. The results of the modelling and first practical tests show a good agreement with the objectives. The determined probe parameters satisfy the requirements.
Ein Ziel der Arbeit bestand ursprünglich darin, ein Rechenmodell zur Ultraschallprüfung mit einer Evolutionsstrategie zu verknüpfen. Zunächst verlagerte sich der Schwerpunkt der Arbeit jedoch auf die Erarbeitung eines validierten und erprobten Modells, das den Anforderungen für die Verwendung der Evolutionsstrategie genügt. Aber selbst damit zeigte sich, dass ein Arbeiten mit der Evolutionsstrategie nicht ohne weiteres möglich ist. Daher wurde der Weg der iterativen Modellierung gewählt. Die Einschränkungen der verschiedenen Bewertungs- und Untersuchungsverfahren zur Fehlerdiagnose in der Ultraschallprüfung lassen in Abhängigkeit von der Prüfsituation nur eine fallweise Anwendung zu. Die erzielbaren Ergebnisse sind durch prinzipielle Grenzen, wie die orientierungsabhängigen Wechselwirkungen der Ultraschallwellen mit dem Fehler, in ihrer Genauigkeit stark begrenzt. Eine zuverlässige Bewertung ist meist durch die Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse mit denen aus anderen ZfP- Verfahren und die Nutzung von a priori Informationen z. B. aus der Fertigungsgeschichte einer Komponente oder des Fehlerentstehungsmechanismus möglich. Die vorgeschlagene iterative Modellierung bietet dazu, wie die vorliegende Untersuchung zeigt, eine Möglichkeit. Die durch Einführung von a priori Informationen aufgestellten Fehlerhypothesen werden durch Modellrechnungen abgesichert oder wieder verworfen. Das Rechenmodell ermöglicht die Bewertung der Amplitude, der Laufzeit, der Echodynamik und des Anzeigenmusters, also aller auch bei anderen Diagnoseverfahren herangezogenen Bewertungskriterien. Die iterative Modellierung basiert auf drei Teilprozessen, der Analyse der möglichen Wechselwirkungen, der Separation dieser Wechselwirkungen in diverse Schallwege und schließlich der Synthese der auf den verschiedenen Wegen berechneten Signale zum Gesamtsignal. Die ersten beiden Teilprozesse müssen z. Zt. für jeden Prüffall neu gelöst werden und erfordern wie die Modellbedienung Expertenwissen. Die im Rahmen dieser Untersuchung erfolgten Modellmodifikationen konnten gemeinsam mit der Modellverifikation die Zuverlässigkeit der Modellrechnungen deutlich steigern. Die Berechnungen können schnell und interaktiv durchgeführt werden. Die Rechenzeit für ein TD- Bild mit 50 A- Bildern beträgt üblicherweise ein bis fünf Minuten. Durch die Kombination des Rechenmodells mit der Evolutionsstrategie wurde der Versuch unternommen, die iterative Modellierung zu systematisieren. Diese Kombination würde die Lösung des inversen Problems, d.h. die Bestimmung der Ursache für die akustische Störung, ohne Durchführung einer mathematischen Inversion ermöglichen. Der Anwendung der Evolutionsstrategie mit der hier gewählten einfachen Qualitätsfunktion steht ein hoher Zeitbedarf entgegen, ein schnelles und interaktives Arbeiten ist nicht möglich. Die Praxis erfordert die Definition einer komplexen Qualitätsfunktion, die eine Bewertung des Anzeigenmusters ermöglicht und unempfindlich auf Störeffekte reagiert. Die besondere Schwierigkeit besteht darin die Erfahrungen und die "Phantasie" eines Experten in das Modell zu integrieren. Dieser Umstand beinhaltet noch ein großes Entwicklungspotenzial. Ein gegenwärtiger Einsatz der Evolutionsstrategie erscheint daher verfrüht. Inwieweit Probleme mit in den Messdaten enthaltenen Mehrdeutigkeiten und Störanzeigen von Testblockkanten und anderen Reflektoren zukünftig überwunden werden können, kann gegenwärtig noch nicht abschließend geklärt werden. Eine zuverlässige Bewertung von kritischen Befunden mit mehreren möglichen Ursachen kann derzeit nur mit Expertenwissen über den Weg der iterativen Modellierung erfolgen. Dies ermöglicht auf einfache Weise die Einführung der a priori Informationen und gestattet ein schnelles und interaktives Arbeiten.
The fatigue process of concrete under compressive cyclic loading is still not completely explored. The corresponding damage processes within the material structure are especially not entirely investigated. The application of acoustic measurement methods enables a better insight into the processes of the fatigue in concrete. Normal strength concrete was investigated under compressive cyclic loading with regard to the fatigue process by using acoustic methods in combination with other nondestructive measurement methods. Acoustic emission and ultrasonic signal measurements were applied together with measurements of strains, elastic modulus, and static strength. It was possible to determine the anisotropic character of the fatigue damage caused by uniaxial loading based on the ultrasonic measurements. Furthermore, it was observed that the fatigue damage seems to consist not exclusively of load parallel oriented crack structures. Rather, crack structures perpendicular to the load as well as local compacting are likely components of the fatigue damage. Additionally, the ultrasonic velocity appears to be a good indicator for fatigue damage beside the elastic modulus. It can be concluded that acoustic methods allow an observation of the fatigue process in concrete and a better understanding, especially in combination with further measurement methods.
Several countries, which use or used nuclear power, started to destruct nuclear power plants. Thus, large amounts of radioactive waste have to be stored safely during the next decades. Large underground caverns will
be used a nuclear waste disposal. Once the cavern is full, a sealing construction is required. The sealing should avoid the contact to any fluids or substances of the storage barrels and reduce hazardous radiation.
The delamination of concrete slabs is the separation along a plane roughly parallel to, and generally near, the surface. Corrosion-induced delamination is a common problem in old concrete bridge decks. If undetected, delaminations could expand, reach the surface, and result in spalling. Early detection of delamination is necessary for planning timely repairs that prevent costly deck replacement projects. Most bridge owners rely on routine visual and traditional surveys of bridge deck conditions. These surveys are highly subjective and can locate only large shallow delaminated zones. Several nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques have recently been employed for bridge deck evaluation to obtain more objective and comprehensive assessment. The reliability of applicable methods needs to be established before a greater role for NDT in routine inspections can be encouraged. This paper presents a validation study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of three NDT techniques, namely impact echo, ultrasound (US) echo, and US linear array, in detection of delamination. This study is unique because the subject test specimens were deteriorated bridge deck segments preserved from the demolition of a prestressed box girder bridge. The results of the tests conducted on one of the specimens are presented and discussed here: impact echo provided satisfactory overall assessment, but the individual results were often difficult to interpret; US echo detected deep delaminations but not shallow ones; and US linear array located the extent of deep delaminations and provided indications of shallow ones.
The accuracy and precision of low-frequency (center frequency of approximately 55 kHz) ultrasonic testing for detection and characterization of delamination in concrete bridge decks were evaluated. A multiprobe ultrasonic testing system (with horizontally polarized shear-wave transducers) was used to detect built-in delamination defects of various size, depth, and severity (i.e., thickness) in a test specimen—a 6.1 m × 2.4 m × 216 mm (20 ft × 8 ft × 8.5 in.) reinforced concrete slab-built to simulate a concrete bridge deck. The collected data sets were reconstructed applying synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT). The reconstructed measurement results were then used to assess the condition of the concrete slab at individual points [point-by-point data collection and two-dimensional (2D) reconstruction] as well as along lines, where data were collected at smaller steps and reconstructed in a three-dimensional (3D) format. The local-phase information was also calculated, superimposed on the reconstructed images and used as complementary information in condition assessment. The precision and accuracy of condition assessments were evaluated. The results indicated that, using the multiprobe ultrasonic array, delamination defects as small as 30 cm² (1 ft²) could be reliably detected. Deep delaminations [i.e., those deeper than 150 mm (6 in.)] were directly detected and characterized, whereas shallow delaminations [shallower than 65 mm (2.5 in.)] were detected only indirectly. The precision of the measurements was demonstrated by comparing repeated measurements at several test points. Similar measurement results obtained on a delaminated portion of a real bridge deck support the conclusions of the validation study.
Ultrasonic probes for high-temperature applications are provided with metallic wedges, which can withstand the contact with the high temperature of the inspected structure. The ultrasonic signal travels within the wedge and gets reflected from its boundaries, causing interference signals called “ghost echoes”. The current work presents an investigation of the additional damping effect provided by porous sintered metal plates applied onto the surface of the wedge. In particular, the study evaluates the effect of damping plate thickness on the interference signal level at different transmission frequencies. Damping plates made of sintered metal SIKA-R 15 AX were attached to a wedge prototype made of steel 1.4301. The study revealed, that the most effective thickness of damping plates in the selected frequency interval of 1 to 4 MHz is equal to 4 mm. The evaluation of the interference signal has shown that the application of such damping plates to the wedge surface contributes to an additional attenuation of an interference signal of 10 to 30 dB after 500 μs of signal propagation.
Within a know-how transfer project funded by the government conventional ultrasonic
technique was replaced by phased array technique for automated round-bar testing. Instead of
applying a great number of conventional probes to achieve acceptable volume coverage we used
curved linear arrays. The benefits of phased array technique such as programmable skew angles,
beamforming and beam positions, led not only to a significant decrease in inspection time, but also the
number of probes could be substantially reduced . Finally, the testing parameters for a large range of
bar-diameters could be adapted by software control instead of time-consuming mechanical
replacement. The probe-design was carried out by a proprietary modelling program. Both the
theoretical calculations as well as the latter experimental verifications revealed significant advantages
of curved arrays versus the planar types. A radial oriented probe offers perfect adaption to the
cylindrical shape of the specimen allowing wide variations of the sound field. Thus beam direction,
beam size and beam position could be optimized with respect to a minimum of inspection cycles, as
inspections have to be executed in-line during the production. A number of laboratory tests were
carried out on special test components. In order to achieve an optimal performance of the reference
rod we implemented three different types of reference reflectors: (i) flat-bottom-holes with diameters
of 0.8 mm and 1.2 mm, (ii) side-drilled-holes with a diameter of 0.7 mm for the detection of
volumetric flaws, and (iii) notches with a depth of 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm for the detection of surfaceoriented
defects. All laboratory tests were carried out with the COMPAS-XXL inspection system, a
proprietary development of BAM.