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The collaborative project “Impacts of impurities in CO2 streams captured from different emitters in a regional cluster on transport, injection and storage (CLUSTER)” aimed to set up recommendations on how to define “reasonable minimum composition thresholds” that CO2 streams should meet when accessing CO2 transport pipeline networks. Within CLUSTER, we investigated potential impacts of CO2 streams with different and temporally variable compositions and mass flow rates along the whole CCS chain. Investigations included, amongst others, impacts on: Corrosion of pipeline steel, pipeline network design and related transport costs, alteration of well bore cements, pressure evelopment and rock integrity, geochemical reactions, and petrophysical and geomechanical rock properties.
All investigations are based on a generic CCS chain scenario. In this scenario, CO2 streams are captured from a spatial cluster of eleven emitters and collected in a regional pipeline network. Emitters comprise seven fossil fuel-fired power plants equipped with different capture technologies, two cement plants, one refinery and one integrated iron and steel plant. In total, 19.78 Mio t CO2 (including impurities) are captured in the emitter cluster annually. The combined CO2 stream is transported in a trunk line with a length of 400 km (100 km of these offshore) and is injected into five generic storage structures. The storage reservoirs are saline aquifers of the Buntsandstein.
The investigations revealed beneficial and deteriorating impacts of different impurities and combinations thereof. Overall, no fundamental technical obstacles for transporting, injecting and storing CO2 streams of the modelled variable compositions and mass flow rates were observed. Based on the results, the CLUSTER project team recommends not to define “minimum composition thresholds” for CO2 streams as strict threshold values for eachindividual impurity in the stream. Instead, CO2 stream compositions and variabilities for specific CCS projects should be constrained with regard to a set of parameters including i) the overall CO2 content, ii) maximum contents of relevant impurities or elements, iii) acceptable variability of CO2 stream composition, and iv)impurity combinations to be avoided.
To set up recommendations on how to define “reasonable minimum composition thresholds” for CO2 streams to access CO2 pipeline networks, we investigated potential impacts of CO2 streams with different and temporally variable compositions and mass flow rates along the CCS chain. All investigations were based on a generic “CCS cluster scenario” in which CO2 streams captured from a spatial cluster of eleven emitters (seven fossil-fired power plants, two cement plants, one refinery and one steel mill) are collected in a regional pipeline network. The resulting CO2 stream (19.78 Mio t impure CO2 per year) is transported in a trunk line (onshore and offshore) and injected into five generic replicate storage structures (Buntsandstein saline aquifers) offshore. Experimental investigations and modeling of selected impacts revealed beneficial as well as adverse impacts of different impurities and their combinations. Overall, no fundamental technical obstacles for transporting, injecting and storing CO2 streams of the considered variable compositions and mass flow rates were observed. We recommend to define minimum composition thresholds for each specific CCS project through limiting
i) the overall CO2 content,
ii) maximum contents of relevant impurities or elements,
iii) acceptable variability of concentrations of critical impurities, and defining impurity combinations to be avoided.
The collaborative project “Impacts of impurities in CO2 streams captured from different emitters in a regional cluster on transport, injection and storage (CLUSTER)” aimed to set up recommendations on how to define “reasonable minimum composition thresholds” that CO2 streams should meet when accessing CO2 transport pipeline networks. Within CLUSTER, we investigated potential impacts of CO2 streams with different and temporally variable compositions and mass flow rates along the whole CCS chain. Investigations included, amongst others, impacts on: Corrosion of pipeline steel, pipeline network design and related transport costs, alteration of well bore cements, pressure development and rock integrity, geochemical reactions, and petrophysical and geomechanical rock properties.
All investigations are based on a generic CCS chain scenario. In this scenario, CO2 streams are captured from a spatial cluster of eleven emitters and collected in a regional pipeline network. Emitters comprise seven fossil fuel-fired power plants equipped with different capture technologies, two cement plants, one refinery and one integrated iron and steel plant. In total, 19.78 Mio t CO2 (including impurities) are captured in the emitter cluster annually. The combined CO2 stream is transported in a trunk line with a length of 400 km (100 km of these offshore) and is injected into five generic storage structures. The storage reservoirs are saline aquifers of the Buntsandstein.
The investigations revealed beneficial and deteriorating impacts of different impurities and combinations thereof. Overall, no fundamental technical obstacles for transporting, injecting and storing CO2 streams of the modelled variable compositions and mass flow rates were observed. Based on the results, the CLUSTER project team recommends not to define “minimum composition thresholds” for CO2 streams as strict threshold values for each individual impurity in the stream. Instead, CO2 stream compositions and variabilities for specific CCS projects should be constrained with regard to a set of parameters including i) the overall CO2 content, ii) maximum contents of relevant impurities or elements, iii) acceptable variability of CO2 stream composition, and iv) impurity combinations to be avoided.
The collaborative project “Impacts of impurities in CO2 streams captured from different emitters in a regional cluster on transport, injection and storage (CLUSTER)” aimed to set up recommendations on how to define “reasonable minimum composition thresholds” that CO2 streams should meet when accessing CO2 transport pipeline networks. Within CLUSTER, we investigated potential impacts of CO2 streams with different and temporally variable compositions and mass flow rates along the whole CCS chain. Investigations included, amongst others, impacts on:
• corrosion of pipeline steel,
• pipeline network design and related transport costs,
• alteration of well bore cements,
• pressure development and rock integrity,
• geochemical reactions, and
• petrophysical and geomechanical rock properties.
All investigations are based on a generic CCS chain scenario. In this scenario, CO2 streams are captured from a spatial cluster of eleven emitters and collected in a regional pipeline network. Emitters comprise seven fossil fuel-fired power plants equipped with different capture technologies, two cement plants, one refinery and one integrated iron and steel plant. In total, 19.78 Mio t CO2 (including impurities) are captured in the emitter cluster annually. The combined CO2 stream is transported in a trunk line with a length of 400 km (100 km of these offshore) and is injected into five generic storage structures. The storage reservoirs are saline aquifers of the Buntsandstein.
The investigations revealed beneficial and deteriorating impacts of different impurities and combinations thereof. Overall, no fundamental technical obstacles for transporting, injecting and storing CO2 streams of the modelled variable compositions and mass flow rates were observed. Based on the results, the CLUSTER project team recommends not to define “minimum composition thresholds” for CO2 streams as strict threshold values for each individual impurity in the stream. Instead, CO2 stream compositions and variabilities for specific CCS projects should be constrained with regard to a set of parameters including i) the overall CO2 content, ii) maximum contents of relevant impurities or elements, iii) acceptable variability of CO2 stream composition, and iv) impurity combinations to be avoided.
Not only the severe bus fire in 2008 near Hanover in Germany with 20 fatalities showed the fire danger for coaches1,2. Also two other similar fires in Germany in May 2011 and February 2012 showed the extremely hazardous situations a fire can cause in bus3,4. In both cases young and fit passengers (pupils) could only escape because they were able to destroy Windows and escaped by jumping out of these Windows. In one case they had to escape out of the Windows of the upper deck and several were severe injured. These numerical and experimental investigations of bus fires in coaches and city buses performed by BAM are funded by the German Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development. Web and literature research showed that fires occur much more often than assumed. Most of the fires Start in the engine compartment. However, often the whole bus is destroyed after a fire. One reason for the rapid fire development are the fire safety regulations for the bus materials which are on a much lower level than in the other transport sectors1,2,5,6’. A lot of materials from suppliers and of operating city buses were investigated experimentally. The results were compared with regulations in the train sector because trams and city buses, trains and coaches are working under similar operating conditions, e.g. for escape possibilities. These results were used to investigate bus fires also numerically to identify very hazardous scenarios by varying materials properties, geometries and air condition settings.
Additionally real scale experiments were performed on different bus seats; ignited by a paper cushion. Especially the newer bus seats showed a very low fire performance with high heat and smoke release rates. Surprisingly a city bus seat of an older bus (built in 1995) showed a better fire performance. It is assumed that the trend to cheaper and lightweight plastics is one reason that modern seats have worse fire performance. Large scale tests were performed on a city bus - smoke development, fire detection and suppression in the engine area. Several possible enhancements are discussed and recommendations are given to make buses more fire safe.